Several studies were mentioned on the virosome application in cancer therapy. Reconstituted influenza virus envelopes (virosomes) were used in several preclinical studies and clinical trials for cancer treatment, such as ovarian carcinoma (OVCAR-3). Viral HA membrane fusion activity was inhibited by PEG-derivatized lipids incorporation into the virosome membrane, and then FabP fragments of mAb 323/A3 (anti-epithelial glycoprotein-2) were conjugated to the distal end of PEG on the virosomes. This study suggested that influenza virosomes had desirable properties in cytosolic delivery [87]. Waelti et al. showed that the virosome densely covered with HA spikes, conjugated with HER-2/neu (p185her2) oncogene produced a new selective drug delivery system inhibiting tumor progression [88].
87. Mastrobattista E., Schoen P., Wilschut J., Crommelin D.J.A., Storm G. Targeting influenza virosomes to ovarian carcinoma cells. FEBS Lett. 2001;509(1):71–76. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
88. Waelti E., Wegmann N., Schwaninger R., Wetterwald A., Wingenfeld C., Rothen-Rutishauser B., Gimmi C.D. Targeting HER-2/neu with Antirat Neu virosomes for cancer therapy. Cancer Res. 2002;62(2):437–444. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
Virosomes have been emerging as FDA approved nanocarriers for human use due to their excellent tolerance and safety profile (8–10). Subunit vaccines presented poor performance against viral invasions, while virosomes create strong humoral and cellular immune responses similar to a potent adjuvant. Potency and mechanisms of virosome based vaccines actions is affected by several factors, such as chemical compounds, particle size distribution and homogeneity, charge, morphology, and location of antigens and/or adjuvants in a carrier structure and, finally, the route of administration.
Location of antigens epitopes in virosome structure is the critical factor in initiating rapid innate and adaptive immune responses, immunoglobulin receptors of the B cells quickly recognizing antigens on the surface of virosomes and secrete virus-specific antibodies. However, T cell-independent responses are non-durable and short-lived and usually induced IgM antibodies secreting. T cells are a critical component of adaptive immunity and generating protective immune responses against viral infections. T cell receptor (TCR) binds to broken-down peptides of the antigen presented on major histocompatibility complexes (MHC) molecules. MHC class I and MHC class II reside on antigen-presenting cell (APCs) surface. MHC-I presentation pathway simulated the CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) and MHC-II antigen leading to activated CD4+ helper T cells pathway. APCs uptake antigens and transport them into draining lymph nodes, crucial for induction of a long-lived memory and robust IgG response [44,49,50].
44. Bungener L., Huckriede A., de Mare A., de Vries-Idema J., Wilschut J., Daemen T. Virosome-mediated delivery of protein antigens in vivo: efficient induction of class I MHC-restricted cytotoxic T lymphocyte activity. Vaccine. 2005;23(10):1232–1241. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
49. Stegmann T., Kamphuis T., Meijerhof T., Goud E., de Haan A., Wilschut J. Lipopeptide-adjuvanted respiratory syncytial virus virosomes: a safe and immunogenic non-replicating vaccine formulation. Vaccine. 2010;28(34):5543–5550. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
50. Kammer A.R., Amacker M., Rasi S., Westerfeld N., Gremion C., Neuhaus D., Zurbriggen R. A new and versatile virosomal antigen delivery system to induce cellular and humoral immune responses. Vaccine. 2007;25(41):7065–7074. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
Market Data 
Markets 
AI
