Hemp From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about industrial and foodstuff products that are derived from hemp cultivars of the Cannabis plant. For the usage of Cannabis as a drug, see Cannabis (drug). For other uses, see Hemp (disambiguation). Hemp field in Côtes-d'Armor, Brittany, France
Hemp (from Old English hænep) is a commonly used term for high growing varieties of the Cannabis plant and its products, which include fiber, oil, and seed. Hemp is refined into products such as hemp seed foods, hemp oil, wax, resin, rope, cloth, pulp, paper, and fuel.
Other variants of the herb Cannabis sativa are widely used as a drug, commonly known as marijuana. These variants are typically low growing and have higher content of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). The legality of Cannabis varies widely from country to country, and from state to state in the United States. In many countries regulatory limits for concentrations of psychoactive drug compounds, particularly THC, in hemp require the use of strains of the plant which are bred for low content.[1]
Contents
1 Uses 1.1 Food 1.1.1 Market share 1.1.2 Nutrition 1.1.3 Storage 1.2 Fiber 1.3 Building material 1.4 Plastic and composite materials 1.5 Paper 1.5.1 History and development 1.5.2 Contemporary 1.5.3 Market share 1.6 Jewelry 1.7 Cordage 1.8 Animal bedding 1.9 Water and soil purification 1.10 Weed control 1.11 Fuel 2 Cultivation 2.1 Cultivars 2.2 Harvesting 2.3 Location and crop rotation 2.4 Diseases 2.5 Environmental impact 3 Producers 3.1 Australia 3.2 Canada 3.3 France 3.4 Russia 3.5 United Kingdom 3.6 United States 4 History 4.1 Historical cultivation 4.1.1 Soviet Union 4.1.2 Japan 4.1.3 Portugal 5 See also 6 References 7 External links
Uses Hemp grown for milk animal fodder
Hemp is used for many varieties of products including the manufacture of cordage of varying tensile strength, durable clothing and nutritional products. The bast fibers can be used in 100% hemp products, but are commonly blended with other organic fibers such as flax, cotton or silk, for apparel and furnishings, most commonly at a 55%/45% hemp/cotton blend. The inner two fibers of hemp are more woody and are more often used in non-woven items and other industrial applications, such as mulch, animal bedding and litter. The oil from the fruits ("seeds") oxidizes (commonly, though inaccurately, called "drying") to become solid on exposure to air, similar to linseed oil, and is sometimes used in the manufacture of oil-based paints, in creams as a moisturizing agent, for cooking, and in plastics. Hemp seeds have been used in bird seed mix as well.[2] A survey in 2003 showed that more than 95% of hemp seed sold in the EU was used in animal and bird feed.[3] Hemp seed is also used as a fishing bait.[4]
In modern times hemp is used for industrial purposes including paper, textiles, clothing, biodegradable plastics, construction (as with Hempcrete and insulation), body products, health food and bio-fuel. Food Hemp seeds
Hemp seeds can be eaten raw, ground into a meal, sprouted, made into hemp milk (akin to soy milk), prepared as tea,[5] and used in baking. The fresh leaves can also be consumed in salads. Products include cereals, frozen waffles, hemp milk ice cream, hemp tofu, and nut butters. A few companies produce value added hemp seed items that include the seed oils, whole hemp grain (which is sterilized by law in the United States, where they import it from China and Canada), dehulled hemp seed (the whole seed without the mineral rich outer shell), hemp flour, hemp cake (a by-product of pressing the seed for oil) and hemp protein powder.[6] Market share
Within the UK, the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) has treated hemp as purely a non-food crop. Seed appears on the UK market as a legal food product, and cultivation licenses are available for this purpose. In North America, hemp seed food products are sold, typically in health food stores or through mail order. The United States Department of Agriculture has concluded that "the market potential for hemp seed as a food ingredient is unknown. However, it probably will remain a small market, like those for sesame and poppy seeds."[7] Since 2007 the commercial success of hemp food products has grown considerably.[8][9] Nutrition Typical nutritional analysis of hulled hemp seeds[10] Calories/100 g 567 kcal Protein 30.6 Carbohydrate 10.9 Dietary fiber 6.0 Fat 47.2 Saturated fat 5.2 Palmitic 16:0 3.4 Stearic 18:0 1.5 Monounsaturated fat 5.8 Oleic 18:1 (Omega-9) 5.8 Polyunsaturated fat 36.2 Linoleic 18:2 (Omega-6) 27.6 Linolenic 18:3 (Omega-3) 8.7 Gamma-Linolenic 18:3 (Omega-6) 0.8 Cholesterol 0 mg Moisture 4.7 Ash 6.6 Vitamin A (B-Carotene) 4.0 IU/100g Thiamine (Vit B1) 1.4 mg Riboflavin (Vit B2) 0.3 mg Pyridoxine (Vit B6) 0.1 mg Vitamin C 1.0 mg Vitamin E 9.0 IU/100g Sodium 9.0 mg Calcium 74.0 mg Iron 4.7 mg
Approximately 44% of the weight of hempseed is edible oils, containing about 80% essential fatty acids (EFAs); e.g., linoleic acid, omega-6 (LA, 55%), alpha-linolenic acid, omega-3 (ALA, 22%), in addition to gamma-linolenic acid, omega-6 (GLA, 1–4%) and stearidonic acid, omega-3 (SDA, 0–2%). Proteins (including edestin) are the other major component (33%). Hempseed's amino acid profile is "complete" when compared to more common sources of proteins such as meat, milk, eggs and soy.[11] Hemp protein contains all nutritionally significant amino acids, including the 9 essential ones[12] adult bodies cannot produce. Proteins are considered complete when they contain all the essential amino acids in sufficient quantities and ratios to meet the body's needs. The proportions of linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid in one tablespoon (15 ml) per day of hemp oil easily provides human daily requirements for EFAs.
Hemp substitute milk
Japanese hemp seed seasoning
Swiss hemp beer uses blossoms
Hemp seed
Storage
Hemp oil, like any food oil rich in essential fatty acids, will spontaneously oxidize and turn rancid within a short period of time if not stored properly; Its shelf life is extended when stored in a dark airtight container and refrigerated. Fiber Hemp stem showing fibers.
Hemp fiber has been used extensively throughout history, with production climaxing soon after being introduced to the New World. Items ranging from rope, to fabrics, to industrial materials were made from hemp fiber. Hemp was often used to make sail canvas, and the word canvas derives from cannabis.[13][14] Today, a modest hemp fabric industry exists, and hemp fibers can be used in clothing.[15] Pure hemp has a texture similar to linen.[16]
Hemp dress
Hemp dress
100% hemp fabric
Hemp sack (Japan)
Building material Main article: hempcrete
Concrete-like blocks made with hemp and lime have been used as an insulating material for construction. Such blocks are not strong enough to be used for structural elements; they must be supported by a brick, wood, or steel frame.[17] However hemp fibres are extremely strong and durable and have been shown to be used in replacement of wood for many jobs including creating very durable and breathable homes.
The first example of the use of hempcrete was in 1986 in France with the renovation of the Maison de la Turque in Nogent-sur-Seine by the innovator Charles Rasetti.[18] In the UK hemp lime was first used in 2000 for the construction of two test dwellings in Haverhill.[19] Designed by Modece Architects,[20] who pioneered hemp's use in UK construction, the hemp houses were monitored in comparison with other standard dwellings by BRE. Completed in 2009, The Renewable House is one of the most technologically advanced made from hemp-based materials.[21] The first US home made of hemp-based materials was completed in August 2010 in Asheville, North Carolina.[22]
Hemp fiber board
Hemp thermal insulation
Hemp interior thermal insulation blocks
Hemp acoustic ceiling insulation
Concrete block made with hemp in France
A panellized system of hemp-lime panels for use in building construction is currently under test in a European Union funded research collaboration lead by the University of Bath. The panels are being designed to assure high quality construction, rapid on-site erection, optimal hygrothermal performance from day one and energy and resource efficient buildings. The 36 month long work programme aims to refine product and manufacturing protocols, produce data for certification and marketing, warranty, insurance cover and availability of finance. It also includes the development of markets in Britain, France and Spain.[23] Plastic and composite materials Main article: Bioplastic
A mixture of fibreglass, hemp fiber, kenaf, and flax has been used since 2002 to make composite panels for automobiles.[8][24] The choice of which bast fiber to use is primarily based on cost and availability. Various car makers are beginning to use hemp in their cars, including Audi, BMW, Ford, GM, Chrysler, Honda, Iveco, Lotus, Mercedes, Mitsubishi, Porsche, Saturn, Volkswagen[25] and Volvo. For example, the Lotus Eco Elise[26] and the Mercedes C-Class both contain hemp (up to 20 kg in each car in the case of the latter).[27]
Hemp plastic interior of a car door
Hemp plastic automobile glove box
Hemp plastic column, automobile
Hemp composite sink basin
Paper History and development Wrapping paper with hemp fiber excavated from the Han Tomb of Wu Di (140-87 BC) at Baqiao, Xi'An
The first identified coarse paper, made from hemp, dates to the early Western Han Dynasty, two hundred years before the nominal invention of papermaking by Cai Lun, who improved and standardized paper production using a range of inexpensive materials, including hemp ends, approximately 2000 years ago.[28] Recycled hemp clothing, rags and fishing nets were used as inputs for paper production.
The Saint Petersburg, Russia paper mill of Goznak opened in 1818. It used hemp as its main input material. Paper from the mill was used in the printing of "bank notes, stamped paper, credit bills, postal stamps, bonds, stocks, and other watermarked paper."[29]
In 1916, U.S. Department of Agriculture chief scientists Lyster Hoxie Dewey and Jason L. Merrill created paper made from hemp pulp and concluded that paper from hemp hurds was "favorable in comparison with those used with pulp wood."[30][31] Modern research has not confirmed the positive finding about hemp hurds. They are only 32% and 38% cellulose.[32] On the other hand, hemp contains only 4-10% lignin against the 18-30% found in wood. This lignin must be removed chemically and wood requires more use of chemicals in the process.[33] The actual production of hemp fiber in the U.S continued to decline until 1933 to around 500 tons/year. Between 1934-35, the cultivation of hemp began to increase but still at a very low level and with no significant increase of paper from hemp.[34][35] Contemporary
Hemp has never been used for commercial high-volume paper production due to its relatively high processing cost.[36] Currently there is a small niche market for hemp pulp, for example as cigarette paper.[37] Hemp fiber is mixed with fiber from other sources than hemp. In 1994 there was no significant production of 100% true hemp paper.[38] World hemp pulp production was believed to be around 120,000 tons per year in 1991 which was about 0.05% of the world's annual pulp production volume.[39] The total world production of hemp fiber had in 2003 declined to about 60,000 from 80,000 tons.[37] This can be compared to a typical pulp mill for wood fiber, which is never smaller than 250,000 tons per annum.[38][40] The cost of hemp pulp is approximately six times that of wood pulp,[39] mostly because of the small size and outdated equipment of the few hemp processing plants in the Western world, and because hemp is harvested once a year (during August)[citation needed] and needs to be stored to feed the mill the whole year through. This storage requires a lot of (mostly manual) handling of the bulky stalk bundles. Another issue is that the entire hemp plant cannot be economically prepared for paper production. While the wood products industry uses nearly 100% of the fiber from harvested trees, only about 25% of the dried hemp stem — the bark, called bast — contains the long, strong fibers desirable for paper production.[41] All this accounts for a high raw material cost. Hemp pulp is bleached with hydrogen peroxide, a process today also commonly used for wood pulp. Market share
Around the year 2000, the production quantity of flax and hemp pulp total 25000-30000 tons per year, having been produced from approximately 37000-45000 tonnes fibers. Up to 80% of the produced pulp is used for specialty papers (including 95% of cigarette paper). Only about 20% hemp fiber input goes into the standard pulp area and are here mostly in lower quality (untreated oakum high shive content added) wood pulps. With hemp pulp alone, the proportion of specialty papers probably at about 99%. The market is considered saturated with little or no growth in this area.[42][43] Jewelry Main article: Hemp jewelry Hemp and bead Jewelry
Hemp jewelry is the product of knotting hemp twine through the practice of macramé. Hemp jewelry includes bracelets, necklaces, anklets, rings, watches and other adornments. Some jewelry features beads made from glass, stone, wood and bones. The hemp twine varies in thickness and comes in a variety of colors. There are many different stitches used to create hemp jewelry, however, the half knot and full knot stitches are most common. Cordage Hemp rope
Hemp rope was used in the age of sailing ships, though the rope had to be protected by tarring, since hemp rope has a propensity for breaking from rot, as the capillary effect of the rope-woven fibers tended to hold liquid at the interior, while seeming dry from the outside.[44] Tarring was a labor-intensive process, and earned sailors the nickname "Jack Tar". Hemp rope was phased out when Manila, which does not require tarring, became widely available. Manila is sometimes referred to as Manila hemp, but is not related to hemp; it is abacá, a species of banana. Animal bedding Hemp straw animal bedding
Hemp shives are the core of the stem, hemp hurds are broken parts of the core. In the EU, they are used for animal bedding (horses, for instance), or for horticultural mulch.[45] Industrial hemp is much more profitable if both fibers and shives (or even seeds) can be used. Water and soil purification
Hemp can be used as a "mop crop" to clear impurities out of wastewater, such as sewage effluent, excessive phosphorus from chicken litter, or other unwanted substances or chemicals. Eco-technologist Dr. Keith Bolton from Southern Cross University in Lismore, New South Wales, Australia, is a leading researcher in this area. Hemp is being used to clean contaminants at the Chernobyl nuclear disaster site. This is known as phytoremediation - the process of clearing radioisotopes as well as a variety of other toxins from the soil, water, and air.[46] Weed control Main article: Weed control § Organic methods The dense growth of hemp helps kill weeds, even thistle.
Hemp, because of its height, dense foliage and its high planting density as a crop, is a very effective and long used method of killing tough weeds in farming by minimizing the pool of weed seeds of the soil.[47] Using hemp this way can help farmers avoid the use of herbicides, to help gain organic certification and to gain the benefits of crop rotation per se. Due to its rapid, dense growth characteristics, in some jurisdictions hemp is considered a prohibited noxious weed, much like Scotch Broom. It has been used extensively to kill weeds in agriculture. Fuel Biodiesel sample
Biofuels, such as biodiesel and alcohol fuel, can be made from the oils in hemp seeds and stalks, and the fermentation of the plant as a whole, respectively. Biodiesel produced from hemp is sometimes known as "hempoline".[48]
Filtered hemp oil can be used directly to only power diesel engines. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel invented the diesel engine, which he intended to fuel "by a variety of fuels, especially vegetable and seed oils, which earlier were used for oil lamps, i.e. the Argand lamp."[49][50][51]
Production of vehicle fuel from hemp is very small. Commercial biodiesel and biogas is typically produced from cereals, coconuts, palmseeds and cheaper raw materials like garbage, wastewater, dead plant and animal material, animal feces and kitchen waste.[52] Cultivation Hemp being harvested
Hemp is usually planted between March and May in the northern hemisphere, between September and November in the southern hemisphere.[53] It matures in about three to four months.
Millennia of selective breeding have resulted in varieties that look quite different. Also, breeding since circa 1930 has focused quite specifically on producing strains which would perform very poorly as sources of drug material. Hemp grown for fiber is planted closely, resulting in tall, slender plants with long fibers. "Until the early 1900s industrial hemp was a valuable crop used all over the world for its strong fibers and oil seeds. Today, however, the common perception of the industrial hemp plant is generally negative and associated with the drug marijuana. This perception is the legacy of a century of powerful influences constructing hemp as a dangerous drug, even though it is not a drug and it has the potential to be a profitable alternative crop. In the United States, the public's perception of hemp as marijuana has blocked hemp from becoming a useful crop and product,"[54] in spite of its vital importance prior to World War II.[55] Ideally, according to Britain's Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, the herb should be desiccated and harvested towards the end of flowering. This early cropping reduces the seed yield but improves the fiber yield and quality.[56] In these strains of industrial hemp the tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content would have been very low.[54]
The seeds are sown from mid April to mid May with grain drills to 4–6 cm sowing depth. Hemp needs less fertilizer than corn does. A total of 60–150 kg of nitrogen, 40–140 kg phosphorus (P2O5) and 75–200 kg of potassium [5] per acre for hemp fiber made before sowing and again later, maybe three to four weeks. When practiced, especially in France double use of fiber and seed fertilization with nitrogen doses up to 100 kg / ha rather low. Organic fertilizers such as manure can utilize industrial hemp well. Neither weeds nor crop protection measures are necessary.[54] Cultivars longitudinal section photo Cannabis sativa stem low-angle photo-shot Hemp strains USO-xx and Zolotoniski-xx
A total of 46 varieties of hemp with low levels of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) are certified by the European Union (EU).[57] They have, unlike other types, a very high fiber content of 30-40%. In contrast to cannabis for medical use, varieties grown for fiber and seed have less than 0.2% THC and they are unsuitable for producing hashish and marijuana.[58] The most important cannabinoid in industrial hemp is cannabidiol (CBD) with a proportion of 1 to 5%. black and white drawing: C. sativa tall, C. indica middle, C. ruderalis small The variety of appearances for cannabis. Only C. sativa (left) is suited for industrial hemp, but it also has medicinal varieties.
Cannabis sativa L. subsp. sativa var. sativa is the variety grown for industrial use, while C. sativa subsp. indica generally has poor fiber quality and is primarily used for recreational and medicinal purposes. The major difference between the two types of plants is the appearance and the amount of ?9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) secreted in a resinous mixture by epidermal hairs called glandular trichomes, although they can also be distinguished genetically.[59] Oilseed and fiber varieties of Cannabis approved for industrial hemp production produce only minute amounts of this psychoactive drug, not enough for any physical or psychological effects. Typically, hemp contains below 0.3% THC, while cultivars of Cannabis grown for recreational use can contain anywhere from 2% to over 20%.[60] Harvesting Industrial hempseed harvesting machine in France.
Smallholder plots are usually harvested by hand. The plants are cut at 2 to 3 cm above the soil and left on the ground to dry. Mechanical harvesting is now common, using specially adapted cutter-binders or simpler cutters.
The cut hemp is laid in swathes to dry for up to four days. This was traditionally followed by retting, either water retting (the bundled hemp floats in water) or dew retting (the hemp remains on the ground and is affected by the moisture in dew, and by molds and bacterial action). Modern processes use steam and machinery to separate the fiber, a process known as thermomechanical pulping.
USO-xx and Zolotoniski-xx hemp strains 007.jpg Récolte chanvre1.jpg Saint-Flavy (Aube) culture du Chanvre.JPG USO-xx and Zolotoniski-xx hemp strains 019.jpg
Location and crop rotation Hemp maze in France
For profitable hemp farming, particularly deep, humus-rich, nutrient-rich soil with controlled water flow is preferable. Water logged acidic, compressed or extremely light (sandy) soils primarily affect the early development of plants.[citation needed] Steep slopes and high altitudes of more than 400 m above sea level are best avoided. Hemp is relatively insensitive to cold temperatures and can withstand frost down to -5 degrees C.[citation needed] Seeds can germinate down to 1-3 degrees.[citation needed] Hemp needs a lot of heat, so earlier varieties come to maturation. The water requirement is 300-500 l / kg dry matter.[citation needed] Up to 3 feet growing roots into the soil can also use water supplies from deeper soil layers. Worth noting is that the water requirement of hemp is at least 14 times lower than that of cotton which takes between 7 000-29 000 l/kg, according to WWF.[citation needed]
Hemp benefits crops grown after it. For this reason it is generally grown before winter cereals. Advantageous changes are high weed suppression, soil loosening by the large hemp root system and the positive effect on soil tilth. Since hemp is very self-compatible, it can also be grown several years in a row in the same fields (monoculture). Diseases Main article: List of hemp diseases
Hemp plants can be vulnerable to various pathogens, including bacteria, fungi, nematodes, viruses and other miscellaneous pathogens. Such diseases often lead to reduced fiber quality, stunted growth, and death of the plant. These diseases rarely affect the yield of a hemp field, so hemp production is not traditionally dependent on the use of pesticides. Environmental impact
Hemp is considered by a 1998 study in Environmental Economics to be environmentally friendly due to a decrease of land use and other environmental impacts, indicating a possible decrease of ecological footprint in a US context compared to typical benchmarks.[61] A 2010 study, however, that compared the production of paper specifically from hemp and eucalyptus concluded that "industrial hemp presents higher environmental impacts than eucalyptus paper"; however, the article also highlights that "there is scope for improving industrial hemp paper production".[62] Hemp is also claimed to require few pesticides and no herbicides, and it has been called a carbon negative raw material.[63][64] Results indicate that high yield of hemp may require high total nutrient levels (field plus fertilizer nutrients) similar to a high yielding wheat crop.[65] Producers
The world-leading producer of hemp is China, with smaller production in Europe, Chile and North Korea. Over thirty countries produce industrial hemp, including Australia, Austria, Canada, Chile, China, Denmark, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hungary, India, Italy, Japan, Korea, Netherlands, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, Turkey and Ukraine.[66][67]
The United Kingdom, and Germany resumed commercial production in the 1990s. British production is mostly used as bedding for horses; other uses are under development. Companies in Canada, the UK, the United States and Germany, among many others, process hemp seed into a growing range of food products and cosmetics; many traditional growing countries still continue to produce textile-grade fibre. Dried hemp stalks displayed at the International Hemp Fair in Vienna
Air dry stem yields in Ontario have from 1998 and onward ranged from 2.6-14.0 tonnes of dry, retted stalks per hectare (1-5.5 t/ac) at 12% moisture. Yields in Kent County, have averaged 8.75 t/ha (3.5 t/ac). Northern Ontario crops averaged 6.1 t/ha (2.5 t/ac) in 1998. Statistic for the European Union for 2008 to 2010 say that the average yield of hemp straw has varied between 6.3 and 7.3 ton per ha.[68] Only a part of that is bast fiber. Approximately one tonne of bast fiber and 2-3 tonnes of core material can be decorticated from 3-4 tonnes of good quality, dry retted straw. For an annual yield of this level is it in Ontario recommended to add nitrogen (N):70–110 kg/ha, phosphate (P2O5): up to 80 kg/ha and potash (K2O): 40–90 kg/ha.[69] The average yield of dry hemp stalks in Europe was 6 ton/ha (2.4 ton/ac) in 2001 and 2002.[3]
FAO argue that an optimum yield of hemp fiber is more than 2 tonnes per ha, while average yields are around 650 kg/ha.[70] Australia
In the Australian states of Tasmania, Victoria, Queensland and, most recently, New South Wales, the state governments have issued licences to grow hemp for industrial use. The state of Tasmania pioneered the licensing of hemp in 1990.[citation needed] The state of Victoria was an early adopter in 1998, and has reissued the regulation in 2008.[71]
Queensland has allowed industrial production under licence since 2002,[72] where the issuance is controlled under the Drugs Misuse Act 1986.[73] Most recently, New South Wales now issues licences[74] under a law, the Hemp Industry Regulations Act 2008 (No 58), that came into effect as of 6 November 2008.[75] Canada
Commercial production (including cultivation) of industrial hemp has been permitted in Canada since 1998 under licenses and authorization issued by Health Canada (9,725 ha in 2004, 5450 ha in 2009).[76][77] It is expected that hemp will contribute $100 million to Canada's economy.[78] France Industrial hemp production in France
France is Europe's biggest producer with 8,000 hectares cultivated. 70-80% of the hemp fibre produced in Europe in 2003 was used for specialty pulp for cigarette papers and technical applications. About 15% is used in the automotive sector and 5-6% were used for insulation mats. Approximately 95% of hurds were used as animal bedding, while almost 5% were used in the building sector.[3] In 2010/2011, a total of 11 000 ha was cultivated with hemp in the EU, a decline compared with previous year.[68][79] Russia [icon] This section requires expansion. (August 2012)
Russian hemp
Hemp seed warehouse (Russia)
Some Russian speaking people have created a web site on topics related to growing cannabis.[80] United Kingdom A hemp crop in Peasenhall Road, Walpole, Suffolk, UK
In the United Kingdom, cultivation licences are issued by the Home Office under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971. When grown for non-drug purposes, hemp is referred to as industrial hemp, and a common product is fibre for use in a wide variety of products, as well as the seed for nutritional aspects and for the oil. Feral hemp or ditch weed is usually a naturalized fibre or oilseed strain of Cannabis that has escaped from cultivation and is self-seeding. United States A display about the uses of Hemp in the Chicago Field Museum
Hemp is not legal to grow in the U.S. under Federal law because of its relation to marijuana, and any imported hemp products must meet a zero tolerance level. It is considered a controlled substance under the Controlled Substances Act (P.L. 91-513; 21 U.S.C. 801 et seq.). Some states have made the cultivation of industrial hemp legal, but farmers in North Dakota, Hawaii, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Oregon, California, Montana, West Virginia and Vermont have not yet begun to grow it because of resistance from the federal Drug Enforcement Administration. In 2013, after the legalization of marijuana in the state, several farmers in Colorado planted and harvested several acres of hemp, bringing in the first hemp crop in the United States in over half a century.[81] Colorado,[82] Vermont, California, and North Dakota have passed laws enabling hemp licensure. All four states are waiting for permission to grow hemp from the DEA. Currently,[83] North Dakota representatives are pursuing legal measures to force DEA approval.[84] Oregon has licensed industrial hemp as of August 2009.[85] In February 2014, Congress passed an agriculture bill that eased restrictions on cultivation in 10 states.[86] History Yangshao culture (ca. 4800 BCE) amphora with impressed hemp cord design Radical 200 (? or má), the Chinese character for hemp, depicts two plants under a shelter. The use of hemp in Taiwan dates back at least 10,000 years.[87] Cannabis sativa from Vienna Dioscurides, 512 A.D.
Hemp is one of the earliest domesticated plants known.[88] It has been cultivated by many civilizations for over 12,000 years.[89][90] Hemp use archaeologically dates back to the Neolithic Age in China, with hemp fiber imprints found on Yangshao culture pottery dating from the 5th millennium BC.[87][91] The Chinese later used hemp to make clothes, shoes, ropes, and an early form of paper.[87] The classical Greek historian Herodotus (ca. 480 BC) reported that the inhabitants of Scythia would often inhale the vapors of hemp-seed smoke, both as ritual and for their own pleasurable recreation.[92]
Textile expert Elizabeth Wayland Barber summarizes the historical evidence that Cannabis sativa, "grew and was known in the Neolithic period all across the northern latitudes, from Europe (Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Romania, Ukraine) to East Asia (Tibet and China)," but, "textile use of Cannabis sativa does not surface for certain in the West until relatively late, namely the Iron Age."[93] "I strongly suspect, however, that what catapulted hemp to sudden fame and fortune as a cultigen and caused it to spread rapidly westwards in the first millennium B.C. was the spread of the habit of pot-smoking from somewhere in south-central Asia, where the drug-bearing variety of the plant originally occurred. The linguistic evidence strongly supports this theory, both as to time and direction of spread and as to cause."[94]
Jews living in Palestine in the 2nd century were familiar with the cultivation of hemp, as witnessed by a reference to it in the Mishna (Kil'ayim 2:5) as a variety of plant, along with Arum, that sometimes takes as many as three years to grow from a seedling. In late medieval Germany and Italy, hemp was employed in cooked dishes, as filling in pies and tortes, or boiled in a soup.[95] Hemp in later Europe was mainly cultivated for its fibers, and was used for ropes on many ships, including those of Christopher Columbus. The use of hemp as a cloth was centered largely in the countryside, with higher quality textiles being available in the towns.
The Spaniards brought hemp to the Western Hemisphere and cultivated it in Chile starting about 1545.[96] However, in May 1607, "hempe" was among the crops Gabriel Archer observed being cultivated by the natives at the main Powhatan village, where Richmond, Virginia is now situated;[97] and in 1613, Samuell Argall reported wild hemp "better than that in England" growing along the shores of the upper Potomac. As early as 1619, the first Virginia House of Burgesses passed an Act requiring all planters in Virginia to sow "both English and Indian" hemp on their plantations.[98] The Puritans are first known to have cultivated hemp in New England in 1645.[96] United States "Marihuana" production permit. In the United States, hemp cultivation is legally prohibited, but during World War II farmers were encouraged to grow hemp for cordage, to replace Manila hemp previously obtained from Japanese-controlled areas. The U.S. government produced a film explaining the uses of hemp, called Hemp for Victory.
George Washington pushed for the growth of hemp and even grew hemp himself, as it was a cash crop commonly used to make rope and fabric. In May 1765 he noted in his diary about the sowing of seeds each day until mid-April. Then he recounts the harvest in October which he grew 27 bushels that year.
There is some speculation that George Washington smoked the flower of the cannabis plant in order to achieve a recreational high,[55] but there is no evidence in any of his writings that he grew hemp for anything other than industrial purposes. It is sometimes supposed that an excerpt from Washington's diary, which reads "Began to seperate the Male from the Female hemp at Do.&—rather too late" is evidence that he was trying to grow female plants for the THC found in the flowers. However, the editorial remark accompanying the diary states that "This may arise from their [the male] being coarser, and the stalks larger" [99] In subsequent days, he describes soaking the hemp[100] (to make the fibers usable) and harvesting the seeds,[101] suggesting that he was growing hemp for industrial purposes, not recreational.
George Washington also imported the Indian Hemp plant from Asia, which was used for fiber and, by some growers, for intoxicating resin production. In a letter to William Pearce who managed the plants for him Washington says, "What was done with the Indian Hemp plant from last summer? It ought, all of it, to be sown again; that not only a stock of seed sufficient for my own purposes might have been raised, but to have disseminated seed to others; as it is more valuable than common hemp."[citation needed]
Additional presidents known to have farmed hemp include Thomas Jefferson,[102] James Madison, James Monroe, Andrew Jackson, Zachary Taylor, and Franklin Pierce. [103]
Historically, hemp production had made up a significant portion of antebellum Kentucky's economy. Before the American Civil War, many slaves worked on plantations producing hemp.[104]
In 1937, the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 was passed in the United States. It levied a tax on anyone who dealt commercially in cannabis, hemp, or marijuana. The reasons that hemp was also included in this law are disputed—several scholars have claimed that the Act was passed in order to destroy the US hemp industry,[105][106][107] with the primary involvement of businessmen Andrew Mellon, Randolph Hearst, and the Du Pont family.[105][107]
One claim is that Hearst believed that his extensive timber holdings were threatened by the invention of the decorticator, which he feared would allow hemp to become a very cheap substitute for the paper pulp that was used in the newspaper industry.[105][108] Modern science suggests that this fear would have been unfounded. Improvements of the decorticators in the 1930s, machines that separate the fibers from the hemp stem, could not make hemp fiber a very cheap substitute for fibers from other sources due to the fact that the long strong fibers are only found in the bast, the outer part of the stem. Only about 1/3 of the stem are long and strong fibers.[32][105][109]
Another claim is that Mellon, Secretary of the Treasury and the wealthiest man in America at that time, had invested heavily in DuPont's new synthetic fiber, nylon, and believed that the replacement of the traditional resource, hemp, was integral to the new product's success.[105][110][111][112][113][114][115][116]
The Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 was ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in a unanimous verdict decided in Leary v. United States, and ultimately superseded by the Controlled Substances Act of 1970.
Hemp was used extensively by the United States during World War II. Uniforms, canvas, and rope were among the main textiles created from the hemp plant at this time.[117] Much of the hemp used was cultivated in Kentucky and the Midwest. During World War II, the U.S. produced a short 1942 film, Hemp for Victory, promoting hemp as a necessary crop to win the war. Historical cultivation Suitable climate zones for hemp cultivation
Hemp has been grown for millennia in Asia and the Middle East for its fibre. Commercial production of hemp in the West took off in the eighteenth century, but was grown in the sixteenth century in eastern England.[118] Because of colonial and naval expansion of the era, economies needed large quantities of hemp for rope and oakum. Other important producing countries were China, North Korea, Hungary, the former Yugoslavia, Romania, Poland, France and Italy.
In Western Europe, the cultivation of hemp was not legally banned by the 1930s, but the commercial cultivation stopped by then, due to decreased demand compared to increasingly popular artificial fibres.[119] Theories about the potential for commercial cultivation of hemp in very large quantities have been strongly criticized by European experts on Hemp such as Dr. Hayo M.G. van der Werf and Dr. Ivan Bûcsa. From their perspective hemp was, outside the U.S, simply out-competed by other fibers in most applications.[32][109] Soviet Union Harvesting hemp in the USSR, 1956
From the 1950s to the 1980s, the Soviet Union was the world's largest producer (3,000 km² in 1970). The main production areas were in Ukraine,[120] the Kursk and Orel regions of Russia, and near the Polish border. Since its inception in 1931, the Hemp Breeding Department at the Institute of Bast Crops in Hlukhiv (Glukhov), Ukraine, has been one of the world's largest centers for developing new hemp varieties, focusing on improving fiber quality, per-hectare yields, and low THC content.[121][122] Japan Japanese Shinto shrine with rope made of hemp
In Japan, hemp was historically used as paper and a fiber crop. There is archaeological evidence cannabis was used for clothing and the seeds were eaten in Japan back to the Jomon period (10,000 to 300 BCE). Many Kimono designs portray hemp, or asa (Japanese: ?), as a beautiful plant. In 1948, marijuana was restricted as a narcotic drug. The ban on marijuana imposed by the United States authorities was alien to Japanese culture, as the drug had never been widely used in Japan before. Though these laws against marijuana are some of the world's strictest, allowing five years imprisonment for possession of the drug, they exempt hemp growers, whose crop is used to make robes for Buddhist monks and loincloths for Sumo wrestlers. Because marijuana use in Japan has doubled in the past decade, these exemptions have recently been called into question.[123] Portugal
The cultivation of hemp in Portuguese lands began around the fourteenth century onwards, it was raw material for the preparation of rope and plugs for the Portuguese ships. Colonies for factories for the production of flax hemp, such as the Royal Flax Hemp Factory in Brazil.
After the Restoration of Independence in 1640, in order to recover the ailing Portuguese naval fleet, were encouraged its cultivation as the Royal Decree of D. John IV in 1656. At that time its cultivation was carried out in Trás-os-Montes, Zone Tower Moncorvo, more precisely in Vilariça Valley, fertile land for any crop irrigation, and a very large area, flat and very fertile culture still wide until the last century grew up tobacco, a plant that needs a large space to expand and grow, the area lies in the valley of Serra de Bornes.
As of 1971, this cultivar is considered illegal because of marijuana, a decision subsequently revoked by the European Union.[citation needed][clarification needed] See also
Cannabis flower essential oil Fiber rope Hemp for Victory (film) Hemp Industries Association Hempcrete International Year of Natural Fibres Natural fibre Plant textiles The Emperor Wears No Clothes (book)
References
"Industrial Hemp". Agriculture and Agrifood Canada. Government of Canada. Retrieved 2013-02-28. "Erowid Cannabis Vault : Culture #2". www.erowid.org. Retrieved 2008-06-20. "Michael Karus: European Hemp Industry 2002 Cultivation, Processing and Product Lines. Journal of Industrial Hemp Volume 9 Issue 2 2004, Taylor & Francis, London". Informaworld.com. Retrieved 2011-04-20. "Vote Industrial Hemp". http://www.voteindustrialhemp.com/. Retrieved 2007-01-23. "America's First Hemp Drink - Chronic Ice - Making a Splash in the Natural Beverage Market". San Francisco Chronicle (Los Angeles). Vocus. 8 June 2011. Retrieved 19 June 2011. "Chronic Ice, the nation's first drink containing hemp, is making a splash in the healthy beverage market."[dead link] "Living Harvest - The Official Website & Online Store - Hemp Seed Nutrition - Unearthing the Benefits of Hemp Seed". www.worldpantry.com. Retrieved 2008-07-27. "USDA ERS - Industrial Hemp in the United States: Status and Market Potential". Ers.usda.gov. Retrieved 2013-11-09. "Special Report". CNBC. Lan, Melody (2009-01-17). "Edible, Affordable Indulgences for 2009". The Wall Street Journal. "Wilde Country Rancho Hemp Products". Wcranchohemp.com. Retrieved 2011-11-30. Callaway, J. C. (2004-01-01). "Hempseed as a nutritional resource: An overview". Euphytica (Kluwer Academic Publishers) 140 (1-2): 65–72. doi:10.1007/s10681-004-4811-6. Retrieved 2013-03-13. "Characterization, amino acid composition and in vitro digestibility of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) proteins". Sciencedirect.com. 2008-03-01. Retrieved 2013-11-09. "CRRH, Archaeologists agree that cannabis was among the first crops cultivated by human beings at least over 6,000 years ago, and perhaps more than 12,000 years ago". Crrh.org. Retrieved 2011-04-20. "Online Etymology Dictionary". Etymonline.com. Retrieved 2011-04-20. "Green bedrooms and more: Healthy fabrics for the home". The Ottawa Citizen. 2008-04-10. Cronin, Mary Elizabeth (1995-02-11). "Hemp fashions are clean, comfy, and legal". The Free Lance-Star. NNFCC. "NNFCC Project Factsheet: Guide to Building with Hemp-Lime Composites, NNFCC 07-001", "National Non-Food Crops Centre", Retrieved on 16 Feb 2011 Isabelle, Ceyte (2008). Etat,acteurs privés et innovation dans le domaine des matériaux de construction écologiques : Le développement du béton de chanvre depuis 1986 (MASTER - Politiques publiques et gouvernements comparés thesis) (in French). 'Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Lyon. "The Haverhill Hemp Houses". bre.co.uk. Retrieved 2013-02-08. "Modece Architects". modece.com. Retrieved 2013-02-08. "The NNFCC Renewable House". Renewable-house.co.uk. Retrieved 2011-04-20. "Hemp homes are cutting edge of green building". USA Today. 2010-09-12. "HEMPSEC project website". European Union research. Retrieved 8 July 2014. Thermoformable Composite Panels. Composites World. 2006. "Plastics". hemp.com. 2013-05-14. Retrieved 2013-11-09. "Lotus announces hemp-based Eco Elise: a new type of ‘green’ car". transport20.com. Retrieved 2013-11-09. "Green Cars, Fuel Efficiency and the Environment | Mercedes-Benz". Mbusa.com. Retrieved 2013-11-09. "Cai Lun Improved the Papermaking Technology". chinaculture.org. A brief history of the St. Petersburg Paper Mill of Goznak (www.goznak.spb.ru)[dead link] Dewey and Merrill, U.S.D.A. Bulletin No. 404, Hemp Hurds as Paper-Making Material, Washington, D.C., October 14, 1916. Page 25 "The Project Gutenberg eBook of Hemp Hurds as Paper-Making Material, by Lyster H. Dewey and Jason L. Merrill". Gutenberg.org. Retrieved 2011-04-20. "Hayo M.G. van der Werf : Hemp facts and hemp fiction". Hempfood.com. Retrieved 2011-04-20. "Papper". Hampa.net. Retrieved 2013-11-09. "David P. West: Fiber Wars: The Extinction of Kentucky Hemp". Gametec.com. Retrieved 2011-04-20. "Additional Statement of H.J. Anslinger, Commissioner of Narcotics". Retrieved 2006-03-25. "Valerie L. Vantreese:INDUSTRIAL HEMP:GLOBAL OPERATIONS, LOCAL IMPLICATIONS, Department of Agricultural Economics University of Kentucky, 1998" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-04-20. "Michael Karus:European hemp industry 2001 till 2004: Cultivation, raw materials, products and trends, 2005" (PDF). Retrieved 2011-04-20. "Steam energy:Hemp Pulp & Paper Production, January 1st 1994". Hempline.com. Retrieved 2011-04-20. Van Roekel, Gerjan J. (1994). "Hemp Pulp and Paper Production". Journal of the International Hemp Association (Wageningen, The Netherlands). "Anatomy of a Modern Paper Mill, Faculty of Natural Resources Management, Lakehead University". Borealforest.org. Retrieved 2013-11-09. "Boise: Nonwood Alternatives to Wood Fiber in Paper". Web.archive.org. 2007-07-08. Retrieved 2013-11-09. Ivan Bócsa, Michael Karus, Daike Lohmeyer: The cultivation of hemp. Botany, varieties, cultivation and harvesting, markets and product lines. 2 support, agricultural Verlag GmbH, Münster 2000th Michael Carus et al.. Study of market and competition for natural fibers and natural fiber materials (Germany and EU) trade talks Gülzower 26, ed. of the Agency of Renewable Resources, Gülzow 2008 Download nova-Institut (ed.): The small hemp-Lexikon Verlag The Workshop, Göttingen, 2. Edition, 2003, page 79 ISBN 3-89533-271-2 Schubert, Pit. "Our ropes are much stronger than we believe". Union Internationale Des Associations D'Alpinisme. Archived from the original on September 27, 2009. NNFCC. In the US, pet manufacturers use hemp in dog and cat bedding. "Crop Factsheet: Hemp", National Non-Food Crops Centre, 2008-06-09. Retrieved on 2009-05-06 "Phytoremediation: Using Plants to Clean Soil". Mhhe.com. Retrieved 2011-04-20. "Hemp As Weed Control". www.gametec.com. Retrieved 2008-07-09. "COOLFUEL Episode: Sugarcane and Hempoline". Retrieved 2009-10-16. "Clean Energy Solutions". Hemp 4 Fuel. Retrieved 2011-04-20. "Pollution: Petrol vs. Hemp". Hempcar.org. Retrieved 2011-04-20. "Biofuels Facts". Hempcar.org. Retrieved 2011-04-20. Increased biogas production at the Henriksdals Waste Water plant, Cajsa Hellstedt et. all, June 2010 Hemp Cultivation (www.green.net.au)[dead link] This paper begins with a history of hemp use and then describes how hemp was constructed as a dangerous crop in the U.S. The paper then discusses the potential of hemp as an alternative crop. Luginbuhl, April M. (2001). "Industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa L): The geography of a controversial plant". The California Geographer (PDF) 41. California Geographical Society. pp. 1–14. Retrieved 2013-03-28. "Hemp contains less than 1% THC, or tetrahydrocannabinols, the psychoactive property in marijuana. In other words, smoking hemp cannot create a 'high.' ... The dense growth of hemp eliminates other weeds.... The best growing technique for hemp, planting 300 to 500 plants per square meter, also helps authorities easily tell the hemp from marijuana, which is a plant that is less densely cultivated. (Roulac 1997; 149)." Deitch, Robert (2003). Hemp: American History Revisited: The Plant with a Divided History. Algora Publishing. pp. 4–26. ISBN 9780875862262. Retrieved 2013-11-16. "Cannabis is ... a plant that played an important role in colonial America's prosperous economy and remained a valuable commercial commodity up until the Second World War." http://archive.defra.gov.uk/foodfarm/growing/crops/industrial/pdf/flaxhemp-report.pdf "Bundesanstalt für Landwirtschaft und Ernährung: ''FÜR DIREKTZAHLUNGEN IN BETRACHT KOMMENDE HANFSORTEN''" (in German). Retrieved 2013-11-09. Frank Waskow (1995), Katalyse-Institut für Angewandte Umweltforschung, ed. (in German), Hanf & Co.: die Renaissance der heimischen Faserpflanzen, Göttingen: Verlag Die Werkstatt, pp. 45, ISBN 3-89533-138-4 Datwyler SL, Weiblen GD. Genetic Variation in Hemp and marijuana (Cannabis sativa L.) sativa plants are taller and less dense. Indica plants are shorter but a lot more dense than sativas. According to Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms. Journal of Forensic Sciences. 2006; 51(2):371-375. doi:10.1111/j.1556-4029.2006.00061.x Hemp and Marijuana: Myths & Realities written by David P. West, Ph.D. for the North American Industrial Hemp Council "Industrial hemp's double dividend: a study for the USA". Sciencedirect.com. 1998-06-30. Retrieved 2013-11-09. "Industrial hemp or eucalyptus paper? - Springer". Link.springer.com. Retrieved 2013-11-09. "FAQs & Facts: Facts". Resources: Education. The HIA. Retrieved 2008-07-05. "HIA: Resources: Education: FAQs & Facts: FAQs: Answers". www.thehia.org. Retrieved 2008-07-05. "D. Risula, and others, Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture, October 2009". Retrieved 2011-04-20. "Hemp vs. Marijuana". azhemp.org. Retrieved 2008-06-18. "Hemp Facts". www.thehia.org. Retrieved 2013-11-09. "Agriculture in the European Union, Statistical and Economic Information 2011, European Union Directorate-General for Agriculture and Rural Development, page 283" (PDF). Retrieved 2013-11-09. "Growing Industrial Hemp in Ontario, Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, Canada, 2008". ON, CA: Omafra. Retrieved 2011-04-20. Graeme Thomas. "Natural Fibers: Hemp Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2009". Naturalfibres2009.org. Retrieved 2011-04-20. "Drugs, Poisons and Controlled Substances (Industrial Hemp) Regulations 2008" (PDF). www.dms.dpc.vic.gov.au. Retrieved 2008-11-24. "Guidelines for engaging in the commercial production of industrial hemp in Queensland". dpi.qld.gov.au. Retrieved 2008-11-24.[dead link] "Drugs Misuse Act 1986" (PDF). www.legislation.qld.gov.au. Retrieved 2008-11-24. "Opportunities to engage in commercial low THC hemp fibre and seed production in NSW". www.dpi.nsw.gov.au. Retrieved 2008-11-24. "Hemp Industry Regulation 2008". legislation.nsw.gov.a. Retrieved 2008-11-24. [1][dead link] "Government of Alberta: Industrial Hemp Production in Canada, February 2, 2010". .agric.gov.ab.ca. Retrieved 2011-04-20. "Canada's legal hemp industry growin, CBC News, November 5, 2012". .cbc.ca. Retrieved 2012-11-05. Jordbruksverket: 2.1–2.3, 2.5 Marknadssituationen för spannmål, oljeväxter, proteingrödor, ris,2011-03-10,(Swedish Board of Agriculture, Report from an expert group in the European Union about the market situation for a number of agricultural products. Published only in Swedish)[dead link] "WikiHemp.ws". http://wikihemp.ws/. Retrieved 2014-02-18. "Hemp, hemp, hooray: Bill aims to aid farmers with new but controversial crop". Minnesotaindependent.com. Retrieved 2011-04-20. Colorado Amendment 64 http://www.hemp.org/news/category/cannabis/north-dakota "North Dakota Case". Votehemp.com. Retrieved 2011-04-20. "75th Oregon Legislative Assembly — 2009 Regular Session Senate Bill 676". Leg.state.or.us. Retrieved 2011-04-20. "Farm bill promotes hemp as legal crop". Leg.state.or.us. Retrieved 2014-02-05. Stafford, Peter (1992). Psychedelics Encyclopedia. Berkeley, CA, USA: Ronin Publishing. ISBN 0-914171-51-8. :) "Information paper on industrial hemp (industrial cannabis)". www2.dpi.qld.gov.au. Archived from the original on 2008-07-23. Retrieved 2008-07-05. "Hemp Facts". Naihc.org. Retrieved 2011-02-17. "The cultivation and use of hemp in ancient China". Hempfood.com. Archived from the original on 2013-01-29. Retrieved 2011-02-17. Barber, E. J. W. (1992). Prehistoric Textiles: The Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages with Special Reference to the Aegean. Princeton University Press. p. 17. Herodotus. Histories IV. 73–75. Barber, E. J. W. (1992). Prehistoric Textiles: The Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages with Special Reference to the Aegean. Princeton University Press. p. 18. Barber (1992). p. 19. Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe: A Book of Essays (2002), edited by Melitta Weiss Adamson ISBN 0-415-92994-6 pg. 98, 166 "Feasibility of Industrial Hemp Production in the United States Pacific Northwest, SB681". extension.oregonstate.edu. Retrieved 2008-06-18. Gabriel Archer, A Relatyon of the Discoverie of Our River..., printed in Archaeologia Americana 1860, p. 44. William Strachey (1612) records a native (Powhatan) name for hemp (weihkippeis). Proceedings of the Virginia Assembly, 1619, cf. the 1633 Act: Hening's Statutes at Large, p. 218 Diary of George Washington, entry 7 August 1765. url=http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/01-01-02-0011-0006-0004, accessdate=2014-06-03 Diary of George Washington, entry 22 August 1765. url=http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/01-01-02-0011-0006-0010, accessdate=2014-06-03 Diary of George Washington, entry September 1765. url=http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/01-01-02-0011-0007, accessdate=2014-06-03 Bear, James A. Jr., and Lucia C. Stanton, eds. Jefferson's Memorandum Books: Accounts, with Legal Records and Miscellany, 1767-1826. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997, 1:383. Robinson, Rowan. The Great Book of Hemp: The Complete Guide to the Environmental, Commercial, and Medicinal Uses of the World's Most Extraordinary Plant. Rochester, VT. Park Street Press, 2010. Chapter 5:129-135. Print James F. Hopkins, "Slavery in the Hemp Industry", Drug Library French, Laurence; Manzanárez, Magdaleno (2004). NAFTA & neocolonialism: comparative criminal, human & social justice. University Press of America. p. 129. ISBN 978-0-7618-2890-7. Earlywine, 2005: p. 24 Peet, 2004: p. 55 Sterling Evans (2007). Bound in twine: the history and ecology of the henequen-wheat complex for Mexico and the American and Canadian Plains, 1880–1950. Texas A&M University Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-58544-596-7. Dr. Ivan BÛcsa, GATE Agricultural Research Institute, Kompolt – Hungary, Book Review Re-discovery of the Crop Plant Cannabis Marihuana Hemp (Die Wiederentdeckung der Nutzplanze Cannabis Marihuana Hanf)[dead link] Evans, Sterling, ed. (2006). The borderlands of the American and Canadian Wests: essays on regional history of the forty-ninth parallel. University of Nebraska Press. p. 199. ISBN 978-0-8032-1826-0. Gerber, Rudolph Joseph (2004). Legalizing marijuana: drug policy reform and prohibition politics. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-275-97448-0. Earleywine, Mitchell (2005). Understanding marijuana: a new look at the scientific evidence. Oxford University Press. p. 231. ISBN 978-0-19-518295-8. Robinson, Matthew B & Scherlen, Renee G (2007). Lies, damned lies, and drug war statistics: a critical analysis of claims made by the office of National Drug Control Policy. SUNY Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-7914-6975-0. Rowe, Thomas C (2006). Federal narcotics laws and the war on drugs: money down a rat hole. Psychology Press. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-7890-2808-2. Sullivan, Larry E et al, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Law Enforcement: Federal. SAGE. p. 747. ISBN 978-0-7619-2649-8. Lusane, Clarence (1991). Pipe dream blues: racism and the war on drugs. South End Press. pp. 37–8. ISBN 978-0-89608-410-0. Plant Wizards Fight Wartime Drug Peril (September). 1943. pp. 62–63. New Fossil Evidence for the Past Cultivation and Processing of Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) in Eastern England Author(s): R. H. W. Bradshaw, P. Coxon, J. R. A. Greig, A. R. Hall Source: New Phytologist, Vol. 89, No. 3 (Nov., 1981), pp. 503-510 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the New Phytologist Trust Accessed: 06/07/2009 "Dr. Ivan BÛcsa, GATE Agricultural Research Institute, Kompolt - Hungary, Book Review Re-discovery of the Crop Plant Cannabis Marihuana Hemp (Die Wiederentdeckung der Nutzplanze Cannabis Marihuana Hanf)". Hempfood.com. Retrieved 2011-04-20. "Hemp research and growing in Ukraine". Aginukraine.com. 2002-01-06. Retrieved 2011-04-20. Hemp will help Ukraine to grow wealthy (Russian) Interview with Dr. V. G. Virovets, the head of the Hemp Breeding Department at the Institute of Bast Crops (1998) (English) Yuka Hayashi (2009-03-04). "In Drug-Leery Japan, Arrests for Marijuana Are on the Rise". Wall Street Journal.
External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hemp. Look up hemp in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Hemp as an Agricultural Commodity Congressional Research Service Industrial Hemp in the United States: Status and Market Potential (www.ers.usda.gov) Wikisource-logo.svg "Hemp". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
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Cannabis Cscr-featured.svg Cannabis Cannabis vulga Taxinomia Regnum: Plantae Divisio: Magnoliophyta Classis: Magnoliopsida Ordo: Rosales Familia: Cannabaceae Genus: Cannabis L. Species
Cannabis sativa L. Cannabis indica Lam. Cannabis ruderalis Janisch.
Cannabis (-is, f.) vel rarius Cannabus[1] et Cannabum[2] est genus plantarum florentium, cuius omnes species descriptae, nempe Cannabis sativa[3] L.,[4] Cannabis indica Lam., Cannabis ruderalis Janisch.,[5] sunt in Asia Media endemicae. Multum differt inter doctos utrum genus in tres species dividi debeat, an variationes unius speciei putari.[6]
Modis in permultis et saepius dissimilibus homines per aeva cannabim usurpabant, papyrum, funes, vestimenta, et vela ex cannabis fibris facientes, et folia, flores, semina cibo coquentes. Etiam cannabim medicinae medicamentoque consumebant, quia insunt multa chemica, cannabinoides vocata, quorum nonnulla sicut cannabidiol adiuvant aegros, et nonnulla sunt psychotropica, sicut tetrahydrocannabinol, quod homines et nonnulla cetera animalia[7] inebriat. Index
1 Philologia 2 Proprietates speciei 2.1 Reproductio 2.2 Agricultura 2.2.1 Romani 3 Usus per historiam 3.1 Textilia 3.2 Cibus 3.2.1 Antiquitate 3.2.2 Nostro aevo 3.3 Medicina 3.3.1 Antiquitate 3.3.2 Nostro aevo 3.4 Medicamentum 3.4.1 Effectus 3.4.2 Usus in litteris 4 Cannabis et lex 5 Cannabis et religio 6 Citationes 7 Vide etiam 8 Nexus externi
Rectus vocabuli cannabis fons est Graece: ????aß??, -???, f. (acc. ????aß??, vel ?a???ß?da), et parens nominis Graeci fuit Scythicus vel Thracicus,[8][9] sed fons primus incertius noscitur. Sunt multae sententiae propositae, sed re vera est Wanderwort, cuius de originibus nescimus.
Primo aspectu radix verbi esse videatur canna, sicut scripsit Isidorus: "Cannabum [sic] a similitudine cannae vocatum, sive a Graeca etymologia; nam illi cannabum ????aß?? vocant."[2] Ergo, nonnulli fontem verbi cannabis proposuerunt esse Hebraicum vocabulum ????? ??????? qeneh bosem, id est canna aromatica.[9] Hi glottologi legunt Exodum 30:23 veteris testamenti:
???-????, ?????????? ?????, ???-??????? ?????? ??????, ??????????-??????? ?????????? ?????????? ??????????; ???????-??????, ?????????? ??????????. ?????????? Dicens sume tibi aromata prima et zmyrnae electae quingentos siclos et cinnamomi medium id est ducentos quinquaginta calami' similiter ducentos quinquaginta. – Moses, Exodus 30:23 – convertit Hieronymus
Vulgius credunt qeneh bosem esse calamum, vel cymbopogon, vel acorum.[10]
Immo contra, Raphael Mechoulam, cum Devanae, Breuer, et Zahalka, apud Universitatem Hebraicam Hierosolymae proponunt verbum Sanscriticum bhanga[11] ? Persicum bang ? Hebraicum pannag ? Syriacum qunnappa[12] ? Arabicum kunnab ? Graecum k???aß??. Credunt ei pannag, apud Prophetiam Ezekieleml 27:17, esse cannabim.[13]
???????? ??????? ??????????, ?????? ??????????; ????????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ????????, ???????, ???????, ?????????? Iuda et terra Israhel ipsi institores tui in frumento primo balsamum et mel et oleum et resinam proposuerunt in nundinis tuis. – Ezekiel, Ezekiel 37:17 – convertit Hieronymus
Proprietates speciei Folia cannabis
Cannabis est herba florifera, cuius folia sunt serrata, pariens inter 5–13 foliis per ramiculum, et omnia folia sunt paria. Masculini flora staminata, pistillata autem feminae pariunt. Feminarum flora denique fructa et semina fiunt. Ab initio, censebant quam fructum parit esse masculinum, et nudum esse femininam.[14]
Psychotropica cannabinoiedes, terpenoiedes, et aliae moleculae volatiles ex glandularibus trichomibus, quae tam copiose crescunt in calycibus et bracteis[15] plantarum feminarum.[16] Reproductio Cannabis sativae semina. Ex cannabis femininae floribus trichomes eminent. Masculinae plantae pollenis saculi.
Scimus Sinicos antiquos duo cannabis genera notavisse, et in Er Ya, primo dictionario Sinico, agriculturam circiter 200 a.E.V. explicanti, legimus ubi scribitur: "Cannabis masculinus appellatur xi ma (??), femina ju ma (??)."[17]
Omnium notorum generum cannabis pollen per ventum vectatur,[18] pariuntque semina, quae rectius achenes vocantur.[19]
Solet esse dioecia,[18][20] ergo masculini cum staminibus et feminae cum pistillis in harundinibus separatis crescunt,[21][22] sed multae varietates monoeciae descriptae sunt.[23]
Saepe subdioeciter (ubi monoeciae et dioeciae plantae in ista multitudine crescunt) cannabis crescit.[24][25][26] Plantae nonnumquam videntur esse labiles—quod significat interdum, si est opus, plantas sexualitate mutari.[27][28][29] Agricultura Agri cannabis coluntur ad fabricandum in Francogallia. Machina ad seminum messem cannabiorum colligendam.
Solet cannabis seri inter Martium et Maium in hemisphaera boreali, scilicet inter Septembrem et Novembrem in australi.[30] Maturat post tres vel quattuor menses. Romani
Multa opera a Romanis de agricultura scripta cannabis usus et modos colendi notant. Plinius dicit cannabim serendam esse a favonio, quod valet idem ac initium zephyri adflantis et veris ipsius.[31] Ut Varro plane descripsit,[32] id est 7 Februarii.
Columella circa 50 taxinomiam cannabis describere conatus est, et eius ordinem optimum esse ad pecus nutriendum.
2.7 Leguminum[33] genera cum sint complura, maxime grata et in usu hominum videntur faba, lenticula, phaselus, cicer, cannabis, milium, panicum, sesama, lupinum, linum etiam, et ordeum, quia ex eo ptisana est. Item pabulorum optima sunt medica et foenum Graecum, nec minus vicia. Proxime deinde cicera et ervum et farrago, quae est ex ordeo.
2.10 Cannabis solum pingue stercoratumque et riguum vel planum atque humidum et alte subactum deposcit.[34] – Columella, De Re Rustica
Palladius circa 350 quando anni cannabim esse serendum dixit.
3.5 De serendo cannabo: Hoc mense ultimo cannabum seris terra pingui, stercorata, rigua uel plana atque umida et altius subacta. In uno pede quadrato sex eiusdem seminis grana ponuntur.<
4.5 De cannabo: Hoc etiam mense cannabum serimus usque in aequinoctium vernum hac ratione, qua in februario disputatum est.[1] – Palladius, Opus Agriculturae
Usus per historiam
Ab aevo neolithico homines cannabe utebantur. Inventa sunt semina ustulata in sepulcris Romanianis, quae circa 8000a.E.V. esse usta credunt.[35] Omnes autem culturae populique cannabim non eodem modo adhibebant, licet fere omnes in medicinam et in textilia facienda cannabim sciebant. Ratio variarum sapientiarum est multiplex:[36]
Modi diversi agriculturae cannabim diversum pariunt.
Parva cum copia lucis solis densitateque plantarum satarum, cannabis crescit celeriter, sicut boscus. Magna, autem, longa sicut harundo. Terra etiam qualitatem cannabis contingit. Potestas psychotropici altitudini qua cannabis colitur pendet: altius, fortior! Leges et mores usum medicamenti saepe prohibebant. Semper non eget populus novo medicamento, eis quae etiam in usu sunt sicut alcohole et tabaco sufficientibus. Etiam omnis cultura non eget novo fonte ciborum. Multi, sicut Mao Zedong in Sinis inter annos 1958-1960, cannabim cibo petebant, cibis solitis per fames vastatis.
Textilia Fibrae cannabis et harundo. Caulis et fibrae cannabis, mesa appellatae, interiores. Tabula aedificilis ex cannabi pressa. Later ex cannabi calceque factus. Papyrus cannabia ex sepulchro Wu Di, imperatoris in dynastia Han, circiter 85 a.e.v. Saccus cannabius sicut forsan Varro finctus esset. Funis cannabius sicut proposuit Plinius. Cannabis plantae certe ad arboris poroceritatem.
Circa 440 a.E.V. apud Herodotum, Scythii cannabi uti dicuntur ad vestimenta facienda. Similis est cannabis lino, sed certe superior:
(IV.74) "?st? d? sf? ????aß?? f??µ??? ?? t? ???? p??? pa??t?t?? ?a? µe???e?? t? ???? ?µfe?est?t?• ta?t? d? p???? ?pe?f??e? ? ????aß??• a?t? ?a? a?t?µ?t? ?a? spe???µ??? f?eta?. ?a? ?? a?t?? T????e? µ?? ?a? e?µata p??e??ta? t??s? ??????s? ?µ???tata• ??d’ ??, ?st?? µ? ???ta t??ß?? e?? a?t??, d?a????? ????? ? ?a???ß??? ?st?• ?? d? µ? e?d? ?? t?? ?a??aß?da, ???e?? d???se? e??a? t? e?µa.[37] (IV.74)"Cannabis eis (sc. Scythis) in terra eorum crescit praeter crebritatem atque magnitudinem valde similis lini; quamobrem cannabis multo superat. Ea et sua sponte et sata augetur. Ex ea autem Thraces sibi etiam vestimenta linis simillima faciunt. Si quis ea vehementer non abraderet, utrum linum an cannabis sit non cerneret. Qui cannabim non novit, id lineum esse putabit." – Herodotus, Historiae
Textus ex pyramidibus plantas quibus rudentes facerent appellant šmšm.t.[38][39] Fibrae cannabis in sepulchris Akhenaten (Amenophis IV, domus XVIII, circiter 1335 a.e.v) et cannabis pollen inventum est in mumia Ramesei II (domus XIX, circiter 1213 a.e.v).[40]
Latine Nodavit Onnos rudentes cannabis. – Fragmenta hieroglyphica, De muro pyramidis – convertit Iustinus
Varro, circa 50 a.E.V., descripsit quae possit lector facere ex fibris cannabis vietis, sicut corbas, dolia, vel fiscinas.
I.22 De reliquo instrumento muto, in quo sunt corbulae, dolia, sic alia, haec praecipienda. Quae nasci in fundo ac fieri a domesticis poterunt, eorum nequid ematur, ut fere sunt quae ex viminibus et materia rustica fiunt, ut corbes, fiscinae, tribula, valli, rastelli; sic quae fiunt de cannabi, lino, iunco, palma, scirpo, ut funes, restes, tegetes.
I.23 Et alio loco virgulta serenda, ut habeas vimina, unde viendo quid facias, ut sirpeas, vallus, crates; alio loco ut seras ac colas silvam caeduam, alio ubi aucupere, sic ubi cannabim, linum, iuncum, spartum, unde nectas bubus soleas, lineas, restis, funes. – Varro, De agri cultura, 1.22 et 1.23
Plinius dicit funes qui adhibentur ad usus marinos optime sparto factos, immo aqua absente cannabios meliores. Monet fibras harundinis interiores optimas, exteriores peiores. Affirmat quoque interdeum caules cannabis ad arborum proceritatem crescentes.
(XIX.8) Hoc autem tunditur, ut fiat utile, praecipue in aquis marique invictum. in sicco praeferunt e cannabi funes, sed spartum alitur etiam demersum, veluti natalium sitim pensans. Est quidem eius natura interpolis, rursusque quam libeat vetustum novo miscetur. (XIX.56) Deinde utilissima funibus cannabis. seritur a favonio; quo densior est, eo tenerior. Semen eius, cum est maturum, ab aequinoctio autumni destringitur et sole aut vento aut fumo siccatur. Ipsa cannabis vellitur post vindemiam ac lucubrationibus decorticata purgatur. Optima Alabandica, plagarum praecipue usibus. Tria eius ibi genera: inprobatur cortici proximum aut medullae; laudatissima est e medio quae mesa vocatur. Secunda Mylasea. Quod ad proceritatem quidem attinet, Rosea agri Sabini arborum altitudinem aequat. – Plinius, Naturalis historia
Grattius notat quoque optimam cannabim Alabandicam esse, praecipue ad retes venaticos texendos:
(46) at pauper rigui custos Alabandius horti (47) cannabinas nutrit silvas, quam commoda nostro (48) armamenta operi. – Grattius, Cynegeticon
1500 annos serius Bartholomaeus Platina quoque de cannabi Alabandica scripsit, sed fere certum est eum legisse Plinium:
7.18(4): De Cannabi Vellitur et cannabis ipsa, ut linum. Decorticata post vindemiam funes ad usum praestat. Aiunt cannabin in Alabandica ferularum vicem in plagarum usum praebere, adeo magna in regione nascitur. Ex semine cannabis tunso cibaria quaedam fiunt, quae et stomacho et capiti ac denique membris omnibus plurimum nocent.
– Bartholomaeus Platina, De honesta voluptate et valetudine
Etiam lege subter, ubi Platina loquitur de cibo cannabio. Cibus Cruda cannabis semina. Semina cannabina glupta et cocta. Plus cocta.
Cannabis duabus rationibus consumitur: vel semina omnino alibilia cibo vel flores nullo modo alibiles psychotropico eduntur.
In seminibus continentur omnia acida aminica et acida adiposa hominibus necessaria.[41] Semina eduntur cruda, cocta, contrita, fricta, pressa in lac, pressa in oleum, infusa in theam. Etsi non habent materiam alibilem, folia nonnumquam eduntur in acetariis.
Pondus seminis est circiter 30% oleo, 20% proteino, 50% amylo compositum. Semina integra, id est cum teguminibus, etiam sunt fons calcii, cupri, ferri, mangani, magnesii, phosphori, et zinci.[42] Antiquitate
Fere omnes loci classici de usu seminum tantum tractant.
Ephippus, circa 250 a.E.V., dat iucundum praeceptum promulsidum mixtarum: Ex fabula ???O? :
Latine: Et post coenam coccus[44], cicer, faba, alica, caseus, mel, sesamides, ..., ..., ...[45], pyramides, mala, nux, lac, cannabides, conchae, sucus, Iovis cerebrum[46]. – Ephippus, Cydon – convertit Schweighaeuser[47]
Plinius circa 55 docuit quomodo siccare semina ad ea edenda:
xix. lvi. 173 semen eius, cum est maturum, ab aequinoctio autumni destringitur et sole aut vento aut fumo siccatur. ipsa cannabis vellitur post vindemiam ac lucubrationibus decorticata purgatur. – Plinius, Historia naturalis
Galenus circa 175 notat nonnullos frigere semina:
?e?? ?a???ße?? ?p??µat??.
??? ??pe? a?t? t? f?t?? t?? ?a???ße?? ????e p?? t? ????, ?a? t? ?p??µa t? ?p??µat? pa?ap?????? p?? ??t? t?? d??aµ??, ???’ ?p??e?????e p?µp???, d??pept?? te ?a? ?a???t?µa??? ?? ?a? ?efa?a???? ?a? ?a????µ??. ?µ?? d’ ??? ?a? t??t? t??e? ???????? f?????te? ?µa t??? ?????? t?a??µa???. ???µ??? d? d?????t? t?a??µata t? pa?? t? de?p??? ?????µe?a t?? ?p? t? p??e?? ?d???? ??e?a. ?e?µa??e? d’ ??a??? ?a? d?? t??t? ?a? ?efa??? ?pteta? ß?a?e? p?e??? ??f???, ?tµ?? ??ap?µp?? ?p’ a?t?? ?e?µ?? ?’ ?µa ?a? fa?µa??d?.[48] De Cannabis semine. Non quemadmodum planta ipsa cannabis vitici quodammodo est similis, ita semen semini facultate est simile, sed plurimum ab eo dissidet, ut quod concoctu sit difficile, stomachoque, ac capiti noceat, parvique sit succi. Sunt tamen qui eo quoque frixo cum aliis tragematibus vescantur: tragemata autem voco ea, quae post coenam, voluptatis inter bibendum excitandae gratia, manduntur. Multum calefacit, ideoque sumptum Paulo largius, caput ferit, vaporem sursum ad ipsum mittens calidum simul, ac medicamentosum.[49] – Galenus, De alimentorum facultatibus – convertit Martinus Gregorius
Nostro aevo [ ? Monstrare ] Praecepta cannabia Platinae Butyrum cannabi infusum. Multi cannabii cibi Amstelodami venales. Taberna in India, ubi bhang bibi potest. Annuntatio ad dexteram legitur "Intra fruereque! Taberna bhang a gubernatione approbata." Cerevisia ex cannabi braciata.
Platina 1474 vel 1475 scripsit suum De Honesta Voluptate et Valitudine, quem potes leger super monstrare in formula imprimiens, in quo nonnulla praecepta cannabina includuntur.
Potius his in diebus non semina sed flores ipsae consumuntur sane ad elementa psychotropica fruenda. Saepius flores infuduntur adipidibus alcoholibusve, ut cannabinoeides solvantur. Deinde his cum adipibus vel alcoholibus mensae coquutur.
Fortis saporis cannabis causa hic modus usurpatur in praeceptis quibus fortia condimenta sicut exempli gratia laurus vel origanum vel thymus usurpari solent. Alia ratione sapor saccharo supprimitur, sicut in imagine fenestrae offarum dulciumque plenissimae ad dexteram.
Hic usus cannabis nullo modo est tantum hodiernus, immo exempli gratia in India fere 3000 annos bibunt potionem bhang e foliis cannabis contritis, lacte, butyro deliquato, et condimentis concoctam.[50] Medicina Antiquitate
K.t phr.t: m?t.t šmšm.t qnqn, sdr n ??d.t, ?c ?r.ty n=s ?m dw?y Alia praecepta: apium, cannabin obtere, requiescat in rore, lava oculos in ea bene mane
Apud Assyrios, cannabis pro multis malis corporis praescribentur.[51]
Ad depressionem: cum mesembryanthemo cannabin misce, lava totum aegrum Ad oculos malos: ungue oculum cannabe cum oeleo iuniperi Ad menstura vitanda cum mentha et croco in cervisia Ad neuralgiam, tussiones, tetanum, et hydrophobiam Ad sedativum, et anodynum, et menorrhagiam, et dysmenorrhoeam At tumores detumescendos, enemate cannabe tamariscoque in oleo porci
Plinius praecepta ad vermiculos ex auribus eiciendos dat. Cannabin a dolores capitis domandos et nonnullos morbos curandos praescribit. Etiam monuit, ne usu cannabis viri suam genituruam perdeant.
xx. 97.258 sucus ex eo vermiculos aurium et quodcumque animal intraverit eicit, sed cum dolore capitis, tantaque vis ei est, ut aquae infusus coagulare eam dicatur; et ideo iumentorum alvo succurrit potus in aqua. radix articulos contractos emollit in aqua cocta, item podagras et similes impetus. ambustis cruda inlinitur, sed saepius mutatur, priusquam arescat. xx. 97.259 Cannabis in silvis primum nata est, nigrior foliis et asperior. semen eius extinguere genituram virorum dicitur. – Plinius, Historia naturalis
Nostro aevo Lagoena cannabis extractorum antiqua.
Hodie multum differt inter doctos quam utilem medicinae cannabim esse, sed fere est consensus cannabim symptomata nauseae, vomitus, et inopiae appetentiae cibi allevare.[52] Sicca caudicula floris Cannabis sativae. Fistula et cannabis.
Medicamentum Sigarella manu conversa cannabe impleta. Fasciculus:Bong in use.oggPlay media Vir fistula aquali utens.
Plurimi sine dubio, ut fruantur effectu psychotropico, cannabim adhibent. Insunt nonnulla psychotropica, sed praestat longe copia potentiaque THC (tetrahydrocannabinol), cuius ut effectus sentiantur, 10 µg per kg corporis concoquenda sunt.[53]
Sunt multi ingestationis modi, sed solitissimus fortasse est fumare flores gemmasque siccas, et etiam huic modo sunt variationes. Sicut dextrorsum depingitur, flores siccae conterantur et in sigarellis complicentur. Fortasse etiam e fistula vel calice flores integras vel sectas fument. Nonnumquam fistula est aquaria, et fumus per aquam in bullis percolatur. Resina fieri potest e trichromibus. Thea et aliae potiones infundantur e cannabi et aqua, vel lacte, vel alcohole. Suasum est infundere cannabim in aqua abusum cannabis esse, quia male per aquam THC diluitur. Modo 2.8 g/L dilui possunt.[54]. Potius dissolubilis adipibus et solventibus organicis, sicut butanio et hexanio, sane etiam in alcohole. Nonnumquam potio e cannabe alcoholeque claro infusa appellatur "draco viridis." Cannabis cocta quoque comedi potest.
Hi sunt nonnulli cannabis effectus in homines, vel fumata vel essa.[55] Boni Neutri Mali
euphoria risus relaxatio, tensionis reductio cogitatio plus philosophica vel creativa; sententiae facilius fluunt melior vel gravior musicae aestimatio maior sensibus naturalibus conscientia musculi relaxati ad dolores, sicut cephalgiam vel spasmos valescendos reductio nauseae laetitia ex odiosis rebus
mutatio conscientiae generalis (sicut cum omnibus psychotropicis) plus appetentiae tarditas motuum cogitationumque mutatio visionis (colores candidiores fortasse videntur) lethargia siccitas lacrimarum et oris memoriae linea interrupta memoria brevis vastatur cogitationes errantes
nausea, mixta cum aliis psychotropicis sicut alcohole, tabacum, et aliis fortioribus sanguinolentia oculorum tussis, asthma, et aliae difficultates respirationis pulsus cordis elevatus anxietas quibus nuper frui inceperunt cephalgia vertigo, aporia languor vel collapsus paranoia vertigo et aporia fortasse fit addictio psychica inscitia et corporis coordinatio amissa agitat condiciones psychicae quae etiam exstant
Usus in litteris Cannabis messis, in forma litterae Sinicae ?. Litterae Sinicae ?, "cannabis".
Res, praecipue medicae, scriptae ferunt psychotropicum cannabis usum diu notum esse. Antiquissimus usus notus est Sinarum
"That the stupefying effect of the hemp plant was commonly known from extremely early times is also indicated linguistically. The character ma (?) very early assumed two connotations. One meaning was, 'numerous or chaotic', derived from the nature of the plant's fibers. The second connotation was one of numbness or senselessness, apparently derived from the properties of the fruits and leaves which were used as infusions for medicinal purposes . . . as a character it ? combines with other characters to form such bisyllabic words as ma-tsui, narcotic (? and 'drunkenness'); ma-mu, numb (? and 'wood'); and ma-p'i, paralysis (? and 'rheumatism')."[56] "Cannabim soporare vulgo notum est ab aevo antiquissimo, etiam per rem linguisticam attestatur: littera ma (?) prisce sensus duos adsumpsit. Ille 'multum vel chaoticum', ob vultum fibrarum erratarum . Alter 'torpor vel corporis absentia sensus', ut patet derivatum ab proprietatibus fructorum foliarum quas adhibebant infuisis pro medicina . . . littera ? cum aliis litteris componi potest ad verba bisyllabica multa facienda sicut: ma-tsui, narcoticos (? et 'ebrietas'); ma-mu, torpidus (? et 'lignus'); et ma-p'i, paralysis (? et 'dolor artuum')." – Hui-Lin Li, An archeological and historical account of Cannabis in China – convertit Ioscius
In Materia Medica Sutra, circa 2000 a.e.v. scripta, distinctionem invenimus inter semina. Ma fen sunt semina mala; ma ze bona.[17]
Primo saeculo a.e.v., pharmacopoiea Pên-ts'ao Ching dixit: "Si nimis consumit, homo, daemonibus apparentibus se contorquebit sicut maniacus. At si per multum tempus accipiat, cum tenebris conloquatur, et corpus ipsud levius fiat."[56]
Saeculo secundo e.v., chirugista clarus Sinicus Hua T'o anaesthesiam coxit cannabe vinoque.[56]
Europaeis quoque antiquis usus cannabis medicamento notus est. Herodotus notavit Scythios fumum seminum haurire:
(75) ?a?t?? ?? ?? S???a? t?? ?a???ß??? t? sp??µa ?pe?? ??ß?s?, ?p?d????s? ?p? t??? p????? ?a? ?pe?ta ?p?ß?????s? t? sp??µa ?p? t??? d?afa??a? ?????? [t? p???]• t? d? ??µ??ta? ?p?ßa???µe??? ?a? ?tµ?da pa???eta? t?sa?t?? ?ste ???????? ??deµ?a ?? µ?? p???? ?p???at?se?e• ?? d? S???a? ???µe??? t? p???? ?????ta?. ???t? sf? ??t? ???t??? ?st?• ?? ??? d? ?????ta? ?dat? t? pa??pa? t? s?µa."[37] (75) Scythae, cum huius cannabis semen capiunt, in tabernaculum subeunt et semen in saxa candentia deponunt, quod tunc fumat et talem exhalationem praebet ut nullus ignis Graecus eam praecellat. Scythae autem mirantes vapore fremunt. Hoc eis pro lavando est, totum enim corpus aqua non lavant. – Herodotus, Historiae
Dubium est num Herodotus hoc bene notaverit, quia elementa psychotropica seminibus desunt. Credendum est deinde Scythas flores, quae certe semina continent, incendisse.[36]
Hodie cannabis consumitur medicamento inter omnia quarto in usu, praeter tabacum, alcohol, et coffeum.[57] Cannabis et lex
Hagae 23 Ianuarii 1912, Germania, Civitates Foederatae Americae, Francia, Britanniarum Regnum, Sina, Italia, Iaponia, Batavia, Persia, Lusitania, Russia, et Siam in primo civitatum conventu de opio foedus subscripserunt, quo usum et commercium opii vetarent; sed, inopiae causa scientiae peritorumque de cannabi et eius usu, cannabin ipsam non vetuerunt. Nihilominus praedixerunt id quod factum est anno 1928, quo secundum foedus pactum est.[58]
To prohibit the export of the resin obtained from Indian hemp and the ordinary preparations of which it forms the base . . . to countries which have prohibited their use, and, in cases where export is permitted, to require the production of a special import certificate issued by the government of the importing country, stating that the importation is approved for the purposes specified in the certificate and that the resin or preparations will not be re-exported.[59] Prohibere exportationem resinae e cannabi Indica extractae et concoctiones communes quarum ea est materia prima . . . in civitates quae earum usum interdicunt, et, ubi exportatio sinitur, requirere indicium praecipui documenti, a gubernatione civitatis importantis mandati, quod attestatur et importationem licitam esse et commercium adfirmatum esse ad rationes ac usus in documento definitos faciendos neque ullo modo iterum exportandum. – Conventum gentium de opio II – convertit Ioscius
Ab hoc conventu usque ad hodie, plurimae civitates vel legibus vel copiam illicitam portatu definiunt; nonnullis autem civitatibus exceptis, sicut Canada et Nederlandia, etiamsi leges stricto verbo possessionem interdicant, in actu lex non tollitur. Cannabis et religio
Mumiae hominum qui esse magi monstrantur alia artificia circiter 3500 annos antiquae in provincia Uiguristaniae in Sinis inventae sunt cum saccis cannabis sub capitibus. Absentibus indiciis usuum cannabis aliorum in eorum societatibus, plane videtur magos psychotropicis fructos esse.[60]
To forbid or even seriously to restrict the use of so gracious an herb as hemp would cause widespread suffering and annoyance and, to large bands of worshipped ascetics, deep-seated anger. It would rob the people of a solace in discomfort, of a cure in sickness, of a guardian whose gracious protection saves them from the attacks of evil influences, and whose mightly power makes the devotee of the Victorious, overcoming the demons of hunger and thirst, of panic, fear, of the glamour of Maya or matter, and of madness, able in rest to brood on the Eternal, till the Eternal, possessing him body and soul, frees him from the haunting of self and receives him into the Ocean of Being. These beliefs the Musalman devotee shares to the full. Like his Hindu brother, the Musalman fakir reveres bhang as the lengthener of life, the freer from the bonds of self. Bhang brings union with the Divine spirit. "We drank bhang and the mystery I am he grew plain. So grand a result, so tiny a sin."[61] Vetare vel modo arte usum definire herbae tam gratae quam cannabis pareret miseriam ac vexationem late divulgatam et, multis gregibus pientissimorum ascetarum, furorem profundum. Solacium populo in arduis privaret rebus, curam in aegrotatione, custodem cuius grata tutela repellet impetus virium malevolentum, et cuius potestas cultorem Victorii facit daemones superando famis sitisque, pavoris ac terroris ac nitoris Maiae vel materiae, et insanitatis, cultorem qui potest in quiete incubare in Aeternum, donec Aeternus eum, corpus animamque potitus, solvit vinculis sollicitudinum identitatis eumque accipit in Oceanum Essentiae. Has communicat fides Musulmanus omnino. Sicut eius frater Indicus, fachirus Musulmanus bhang reveritur sicut si vitam extenderet et vincula identitatis solveret. Bhang fert concordiam cum spiritu divino. "Bhang bibimus, et mysterium me esse eum claratum est. O pergrandem eventum! perparvum peccatum!" – J. M. Campbell, Indian Hemp Drugs Commission Report – convertit Ioscius
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Palladius. Opus Agriculturae Palladius Rutilius Taurus Aemilianus: Opus agriculturae apud www.forumromanum.org, 3.5 et 4.5 Isidorus Hispalensis. Etymologiarum Libri Viginti, 19.27.2-3. Sativa sane refert adiectivum ductum de sero, serere, sevi, satum. Linnaeus in suis Speciebus Plantarum scripsit sativam anno 1723, sed Caspar Bauhin fuit primus, anno 1597. Janischevsky anno 1924 designavit novam speciem ex Asia Centrali et Siberia Occidentali fibrosiorem. Amala Raman, Davide Brown censore "The Cannabis Plant," ex Cannabis: The Genus Cannabis, (Universitas Portus Magni: Schola Pharmaceutica, 1998), p. 29. Consilium veterinariis scriptum quo depressio, ataxia, et bradycardia inter alios effectus cannabis in animalia enumerantur. Commentatio apud ASPCA. (Anglice) Pierre Chantaire. Dictionaire étymologique de la langue grecque: Istoire des mots, tome II e-?. Kincksieck. Lutetiae 1970. Sara Benetowa, Georgio Andrews et Simone Vinkenoog censoribus. Tracing one word through different languages. The Book of Grass. Grove Press. Novi Eboraci, 1967. Immanuel Löw. Flora der Juden, vol. I-IV. Hildeshein 1924 et iterum editus 1967. Ut legas de potione cannabina Indica, quae et hodie eodem nomine appellatur, vide bhang Ex Hebraica lingua in Syriacam transiens, per metathesin, consonantium verbi ordo mutatus est. Ergo Hebraice png ? Syriace qnp. Mechoulam, R., W. A. Devane, A. Breuer, et J. Zahalka. A random walk through a Cannabis field. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 461-464. (Anglice) Raman Amala, et Davide T. Brown censore, "The Cannabis Plant," ex Cannabis: The Genus (India: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1998), ISBN 90-5702-291-5. Bractea est verbum Latinum hodiernum ad verbum Anglicum secundum Merriam-Webster bract (Anglice) Paul G. Mahlberg et Eun Soo Kim. THC (tetrahyrdocannabinol) accumulation in glands of Cannabis (Cannabaceae). The Hemp Report 3(17). 23 Februarii 2007. http://mojo.calyx.net/~olsen/HEMP/IHA/iha02111.html Robertus C. Clarke. Marijuana Botany, 2nd ed. Ron Publishing. California, 1991. ISBN 0-914171-78-X E. Small, "Morphological variation of achenes of Cannabis," Canadian Journal of Botany 53(10):978–987. 1975. Ainsworth Boys and girls come out to play: the molecular biology of dioecious plants. Annals of Botany 86(2): 211-221. S. Lebel-Hardenack. et S. R. Grant. Genetics of sex determination in flowering plants. Trends in Plant Science 2(4): 130–136. Cristiana Moliterni, V. M., L. Cattivelli, P. Ranalli, et G. Mandolino. The sexual differentiation of Cannabis sativa L.: A morphological and molecular study. Euphytica 140(1-2): 95–106. 25 Februarii 2007 E. P. M de Meijer. Cannabis germplasm resources. Advances in Hemp Research, pp. 131-151. Haworth Press. Binghamton, NY. ISBN 1-56022-872-5 Mignoni. Cannabis as a licit crop: recent developments in Europe. 1999 Schumann, E., A. Peil, et W. E. Weber. 1999. Preliminary results of a German field trial with different hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) accessions. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 46(4): 399-407. Retrieved on 24 February 2007 P. Ranalli. Current status and future scenarios of hemp breeding. Euphytica, 140(1): 121-131. 2004. G. Mandolino et P. Ranalli. The applications of molecular markers in genetics and breeding of hemp. Journal of Industrial Hemp 7(1): 7-23. 2002. K. Hirata. Sex reversal in hemp. Journal of the Society of Agriculture and Forestry, 16: 145-168. 1924. J. H. Schaffner. The fluctuation curve of sex reversal in staminate hemp plants induced by photoperiodicity. American Journal of Botany, 18(6): 424-430. 1931. http://www.green.net.au/gf/hemp_cultivation.htm Plinius, Naturalis historia, XIX.56. Varro. De Re Rustica I.28 Hic usus differt a nostro. Vide legumen. Columella, De Re Rustica, 2.7 et 2.10 Richard Rudgley. The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age. Touchstone. Novi Eboraci 1999. ISBN 0-684-85580-1. Martinus Booth, Cannabis: A history Doubleday. UK, 2003. Herodoti Historiae. Textus Pyramidales, carmen 319, §514a (v. 639-40) "The ancient Egyptian word šmšmt was in the past wrongly taken to mean sesame, but has now been shown to be Cannabis sativa." Lise Mannsiche. An Ancient Egyptian Herbal. University of Texas Press; 1st University of Texas Press ed edition (1989), p. 82. Ricardus Rudgley. The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Substances. Little, Brown, and Company. 1998. Lyndsey Osburn. Hemp Seed:: The most nutritionally complete food source in the world. Hemp Line Journal, Iulius-Augustus 1992, pp. 14-15, Vol. I No. 1. (Anglice) JC Callaway. Hempseed as a nutritional resource: an overview. Euphytica, 140:65-72. 2004. Meineke Kyd. frag 2 Quoque bacca. Non bene intelligitur quid sibi velint ß?????, ß???µ??, vel µ????. Hic quoque nescimus quid sibi velit Iovis cerebrum. Intelligitur esse bucella regalis vel bucella regis. Henricus Liddell, Robertus Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon. 9a ed. (Oxonii, 1925-1940) Ioannes Schweighaeuser Argentoratensis. Athenaei Naucratitae Deipnosophistarum Libri Quindecim, tomus quintus, ad locum Dipnosophistae 14.50 Galenus. De alimentorum facultatibus, 1.34. Martinus Gregorius, Augustino Gadaldino emendante. Galeni Librorum Secunda Classis ex septima Iuntarum editione, "Galeni De Alimentorum Facultatibus libri tres", p. 15. 1597. Historia bhang. Reginaldus Campbell Thompson. A dictionary of Assyrian botany. Franjo Grotenhermen. Review of Therapeutic Effects. Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Potential, p. 124. New York City: Haworth Press. 2002. ISBN 978-0-7890-1508-2. http://www.marijuanalibrary.org/brain2.txt Akinde Omotayo. The Medical Applications of Cannabinoids. Borough of Manhattan Community College. Cannabis apud http://www.erowid.org Hui-Lin Li 1974. An archeological and historical account of Cannabis in China. Economic Botany 28(4): 437-448. Pagina prima apud NORML. http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1962-01-01_4_page005.html Caput 4, 12. Hong-En Jiang et al. A new insight into Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae) utilization from 2500-year-old Yanghai tombs, Xinjiang, China. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 108 (3): 414–422. J. M. Campbell. Indian Hemp Drugs Commission Report, 1893–1894.
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Ultima mutatio: 17:28, 19 Maii 2014. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Whether driven by idealism, necessity or greed, an increasing number of elderly Australians are supplementing their pensions with a spot of drug distribution. Mandy Sayer meets some of them.
Put out to grass: Cannabis is the illicit substance of choice for many drug- dealing pensioners looking to supplement their incomes. Photo: James Brickwood
Two decades ago, my father, then in his mid-70s, used to fly to the northern NSW town of Lismore several times a year. He would buy $10,000 worth of marijuana, store it in his carry-on luggage and return to Sydney the same day.
A lifelong user, he had started dealing in order to supplement both his habit and his age pension. At the time, I considered him an entrepreneurial anomaly, but these days more and more Australian pensioners are cultivating and/or selling illegal drugs. Some do it for the promise of regular visitors, others to fund hobbies, others to be able to afford to self-medicate. Most, however, seem to be happy to be on the wrong side of the law for the chance to top up their pensions with tax-free cash.
Brian Ogilvie, for example, was a 68-year-old pensioner living in a caravan in Bowen, Queensland, when he decided to deal marijuana in 2008. His wife had died 40 years previously and he'd been on antidepressants for three decades. The former fisherman and council worker had grown bored and isolated, so he opened his caravan for business. He treated his dozen or so customers as friends, serving them tea and sandwiches, before he was raided and charged in 2010. Before his bust, he'd been planning to save funds from his dealing to travel around Australia as a grey nomad.
"You can't live off the pension," 71-year-old Queenslander Alan Hogan told the police in July 2011. "I can't work. I had a shoulder reconstruction." After his Cooroibah property was searched, a sophisticated hydroponic set-up was discovered behind a cupboard. Police also discovered two kilos of cannabis, 40 plants and more than $1000 in a drawer. Hogan was sentenced to two years in jail, to be suspended after he'd served eight months.
Meanwhile, a month earlier, an 80-year-old man was arrested during a raid in Broome, WA. He'd been caught selling cannabis from the front door of his property. The court was told that Ahma Bin Haji Mohamed Noor lived on a pension of about $400 a week. The magistrate noted that the retiree had a history of similar offences and had been fined $600 only 18 months before. Noor was fined again, this time for $2000, and warned that if he got into trouble in the future, he'd be going to jail.
Last June, a 78-year-old woman living in a unit in Sydney's south-west was charged with selling cannabis from her home. A police raid had allegedly uncovered a large amount of cannabis and cash, scales and other drug paraphernalia.
A few months later, a couple of grey nomads in their mid-60s from South Australia were charged with trafficking. Police allegedly discovered 16 packages, each containing about 450 grams of cannabis, in a purpose-built compartment in the undercarriage of the couple's caravan. They allege the couple were planning to sell the product interstate.
More than a quarter of older Australians struggle financially. The Global AgeWatch Index 2013 is the first international league table to rank the welfare of people aged over 60. Australia trails behind Sweden, Norway, Germany, the Netherlands, Canada, New Zealand, the United States and the United Kingdom overall, and our ranking is diminished by the financial circumstances of our older people, just over a third of whom have an income less than half the country's median income. It's little wonder that some are peddling drugs in order to make ends meet.
It's Saturday morning on the main street of Nimbin and the footpath is alive with stalls of clothes, jewellery, jams and floppy hats. Buskers play raucous trombones and drums, barefoot toddlers run around and dogs wander in and out of cafes, nosing for scraps of food. Everyone, it seems, wants to sell you something, whether it's the skinny man flogging clay ocarinas or the young "Laneway Boys" hawking weed to tourists who arrive on buses several times a day.
As I walk beneath the awnings, I hear a high-pitched voice crying, "Cookies! Cookies!" and notice a plump older woman waving a small plastic bag in the air like a miniature flag. Her face is deeply lined, her grey hair is swept up into a roll, and she's wearing a loose orange-and-black caftan and a pair of rubber thongs. Her bag contains three round biscuits. "How much?" I ask.
"Three for 20, or six for 30."
We sit down on some nearby milk crates. Nanna*, now in her late 60s, worked full-time as a nurse in Sydney before retiring to northern NSW. Seven years ago, in order to supplement her pension, she began baking marijuana cookies and selling them two days a week to day-tripping tourists.
"Why only two days a week?" I ask her. "Is it because you get tired?"
She shakes her head. "It's not that. The Laneway Boys get the shits. They don't like me moving in on their territory."
A group of young Asian men shuffles past. Nanna jumps to her feet and waves the bag again. "Cookies!" she trumpets, in a voice so warm and maternal that they stop and enquire about her prices. As she quietly negotiates, I can see why the Laneway Boys feel so threatened by Nanna. Scoring from the Laneways requires handing cash to a paranoid and pimple-faced teenager, then following him down several back lanes, where the cash is handed over to yet another paranoid and pimple-faced teenager, who disappears beneath a house or onto the roof of a cafe and returns with your marijuana in a paper bag. Buying home-baked cookies on the main street from a woman who looks as harmless and gentle as your grandmother is an appealing alternative. It obviously works: a few moments later one Asian man is giving Nanna his money and she is whispering to him to hide the purchase in his jacket pocket before the coppers spot them.
As she sits back down I ask her if she's ever been arrested. She brushes a stray grey tendril away from her face and nods. "I've been raided three times and busted twice." Most recently, in 2011, she was fined $365 and given a two-year good-behaviour bond.
"But that still hasn't stopped you?"
She smiles and shouts, "Cookies!" to three passing people so pale I wonder if they are albinos. Nanna says she doesn't grow the cannabis, but sources it through a local grower. She's never been a recreational user. ("Oh, I had a toke or two when I was 19, but didn't everybody?") Instead, she eats half of one of her own cookies every night - and has done so for the past seven years - for relief from arthritic pain and to help her sleep.
The albinos are now in a huddle nearby and are glancing back at Nanna. I ask her how much money she makes in a week and she replies, "Depends on the weather and the time of year." As I watch $10 notes flutter between pale hands, she adds, "Roughly between $100 and $600 for the weekend."
The albinos approach and a discreet deal is done in a matter of seconds. The cash disappears into Nanna's bra and the cookies are sequestered in a buyer's bumbag. As the albinos leave, Nanna warns them, in a voice reminiscent of the caring nurse she once was, "Remember, it takes an hour to kick in. And don't drive a car, all right? It's far too dangerous!"
In Byron Bay there is a gift shop filled with candles, tie-dyed saris, feathered dreamcatchers and Balinese bells. Towards the back, you'll notice a small door ajar. If you nudge it open you'll see a small, enclosed verandah cluttered with boxes of stock, a desk littered with papers and plastic lunch bags filled with marijuana. You'll probably also spot a balding man named Lotus*, whose silver hair and beard make him look like a well-tanned Gandalf. He'll usually be perched over the desk, weighing up buds or trimming stalks from dried plants.
Today he's sitting on a towel on the floor, trying to salvage stock: sheets of fluorescent smiley-face stickers that got wet during last night's storm. The tin roof is still leaking and the tiny area smells like damp dog fur.
Lotus looks up and gestures at me to take a seat. As he continues to dry and stack the stickers, I ask him how long he's been selling pot in the back room of his legitimate retail business. He pauses and pulls on his beard. "About 10 years," he replies.
"Do you think you'll ever stop?" I ask. "I mean, as you get older?"
His lips curl into a cheeky grin and he shakes his head. "I can't ever see myself stopping, no."
Now nudging retirement age, he began smoking weed when he was 17 and suffering from severe arthritis. Within a year he was symptom-free and playing touch football every weekend.
I notice a bag full of marijuana sitting on the desk. "How much do you charge for a bag of this?"
"Two [hundred and] eighty for an ounce," he says. "Or ten dollars a gram."
He explains that he buys the weed from a local farmer, and is also involved with two companies in Thailand to develop alternative seed stocks for the hemp food industry and for hemp fibre production. He makes two trips a year to confer with his overseas colleagues.
Lotus tells me the main reason he sells pot nine hours a day, seven days a week, is to fund his research into the medicinal potential of marijuana. He estimates that he sells about 40 per cent of his product to recreational users. The profits allow him to give away the remaining 60 per cent to sufferers of cancer, arthritis, Parkinson's disease and multiple sclerosis. "At the moment, I'm developing a massage oil with a very high THC level to use on sufferers of cerebral palsy." THC is tetrahydrocannabinol, the main psychoactive ingredient found in the cannabis plant.
When I ask Lotus if he has ever been busted, he rolls his eyes and nods. "The last time was about two years ago. I got a 'section 9' [good-behaviour bond] and had to enter into a three-month merit course." The program involved regular urine testing as well as education on the long-term effects of drug abuse. "During that time, my blood pressure went through the roof! My arresting officer reckoned I wouldn't make the three months, but I did." And how soon was it before he was back in the shop, smoking and dealing dope on a regular basis? "About a week."
Lotus tells me a story about a pensioner named Chicken George*, who retired from his council job in Coffs Harbour in the late '90s and moved to the Byron Bay area. Chicken George soon realised he had two problems: a growing taste for marijuana and an inability to live well on the pension. "At the start of every winter, he'd buy up a few kilos of weed and then have a mate - who owned a trucking business - remove the wheels of his van and store the dope in the tyres. Chicken George would then drive up to Cairns on his own, check in to a caravan park and spend two months dealing there, which funded his lifestyle for the rest of the year." Lotus adds that Chicken George did this for several winters, without being arrested, until his death seven years ago at the age of 66.
"I do have one rule, though," says Lotus, "and so did Chicken George. We don't sell to minors, no matter how much they offer to pay."
One of the most recent trends among retirees, primarily on the Gold Coast, is to on-sell prescription drugs such as the painkiller oxycodone (nicknamed "hillbilly heroin" and usually sold as OxyContin) to youths who like to mix them with alcohol. Between 2009 and 2011, for example, more than 580,000 taxpayer-funded scripts were approved in NSW for OxyContin and similar opiate painkillers, such as OxyNorm and MS-Contin. Older people generally find it easier to get a doctor to prescribe these drugs, and pensioner subsidies on those prescriptions ensure a tidy profit. A $34 script for OxyContin yields a box of 20 tablets, which can then be sold on the black market for as much as $50 each. With further discounts to pensioners, the box can be bought for as little as $6 - and then be on-sold for $1000.
But it's not just the trafficking of cannabis and pills that provides financial assistance for Australia's ageing. In 2008, a 74-year-old man from Sydney was arrested on charges relating to the dealing of meth-amphetamine, also known as ice and crystal meth. He and one of his co-accused, a 67-year-old man from Macquarie Hills, were allegedly the kingpins of one of the largest trafficking operations of the drug in NSW. Police said the drugs they seized had a street value of $500,000 and were the equivalent of 10,000 single doses.
On a sunny afternoon in Sydney I have lunch with Don*, an 83-year-old chemist who's been on a weekly retainer for the past five years with a major Australian bikie gang. His only job is to develop alternative molecular structures for the production of crystal meth, ones that can evade the ever-changing federal laws.
We meet at an outdoor cafe, just around the corner from his unit in leafy Killarney Heights. His hair is cloud-white and styled into a curly pageboy cut and he's sporting a black eye and bandaged wrist from a recent fall at home. Even though he's apparently unsteady on his feet these days, Don refuses to use a walking stick, let alone a Zimmer frame. With him is his friend Snapper*, 50, the middleman between Don and the bikie gang. Snapper's secondary, legitimate business is a pizza shop in Sydney's west.
In a soft, child-like voice, Don remarks that it's impossible to make money in Australia by cooking up meth these days. "Too many taxes [on the precursor drugs] and too much bureaucracy."
"The chemicals are hard to get," Snapper adds. "I mean, on an industrial level." Snapper has lost some of his front teeth and I have to lean forward to hear him. "In the old days we used to be able to buy 200-litre drums of benzyl methyl ketone for fuck-all ..."
"And then all of a sudden you can only get 10-mil bottles!" interrupts Don, horrified.
For a few minutes, Snapper and Don forget I'm here and argue like an old married couple over the correct names of various chemical combinations they're experimenting with, including those concocted from a kangaroo-tanning product derived from ox blood.
"No," says the older man, shaking his head. "It's phenylacetic. I should know!"
Don explains that he flies to China three times a year, buys precursor chemicals for a fraction of the Australian price and on-sells them to another international destination. They eventually arrive in Australia through a covert operation he's not willing to discuss.
"So how does it all work?" I ask. "I mean, between you and Snapper and the bikies? Who's in charge?"
The two men exchange glances. "There's only one law," says Don. "Whoever has the money makes the rules."
Snapper lights a rollie and tells me that recently a Lebanese gang tried to move in on Don. They, too, offered him a generous retainer in return for "chemical consultations". When members of the bikie gang discovered what "the Lebs" were up to, they directed two of their girlfriends to beat up the interlopers, which they did - right in front of the pensioner. The only problem was that the bikie chicks then moved in with Don for a few days, polished off his whisky and used up all of his hospital-prescribed Xanax, Valium and morphine.
Developing alternative strains of crystal meth is not Don's only preoccupation. "I've also experimented with diet drugs, synthetic skin ..."
"What are the other challenges when manufacturing meth," I ask them, "besides sourcing the chemicals?"
Don begins. "It takes three people a week to cook one batch up ..."
"Glassware," overlaps Snapper. "Sometimes we buy it second-hand from an internet firm ..."
"Yes, but even second-hand glass has to be registered with the government," adds Don.
Snapper sighs and rubs his two-day growth. "But it's a code of practice, not a law. Nothin' we can't deal with."
Snapper tells me that the reason Don was freed from remand in Long Bay jail a few years ago was because he'd become too popular with much younger inmates. "He was like an old grandfather teaching them all how to cook. The screws got so mad they had to kick him out before he totally corrupted them all!"
As Don rummages in a shopping bag, I ask him if ever uses the drugs he is obviously so skilled at developing. He shakes his head and continues rummaging. "So is it the money?" I add, wondering aloud why he'd risk so much to assist an infamous and dangerous bikie gang. He laughs and pulls out a notebook. "The money's good, but that's not all."
"Well, what is it then?" I persist. "The company? The sense of risk?"
He looks at me directly with his good eye and hands me his business card: "Don Miller: Consulting Chemist; Chemical Analysis; Custom Synthesis." He grins and places a plump hand on mine. "It's to satisfy my boundless curiosity."
Lives Lived Well is a Queensland not-for-profit organisation that supports people struggling with addiction. Its chief executive, Mitchell Giles, believes that Australians' idealisation of a peaceful retirement belies a raft of problems that today's elderly face, including isolation, depression and stress. "These factors can strongly increase the likelihood of older people misusing alcohol or other drugs as a coping mechanism."
Not only are many retirees trafficking drugs for financial reasons, some are also becoming regular users of the products they deal. Figures from the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, reported in The Courier-Mail, show that between 2003-4 and 2011-12 there was a 321 per cent increase in amphetamine use among Australians 60 years or older, while treatment for cannabis use among the over-60s increased by 231 per cent.
If these statistics seem to have come out of the blue, we'd do well to remember that many of today's pensioners are yesterday's hippies: former Vietnam War protesters, alternative-lifestyle practitioners, flower children, anarchists. The generation that came of age during the '60s is either past retirement age or rapidly approaching it. During the '70s, these same people enjoyed the largesse of a generous Whitlam government: free tertiary education, various social services, and dole payments that they could actually live on.
During the '80s, many baby boomers were enticed into more conventional lifestyles, had families and settled into the security and comfort of middle age. It's not a generation accustomed to making sacrifices or "going without". It is also, paradoxically, the generation that began, and continues to fuel, the self-help industry. Put the two together and it's a perfect storm.
This older population is already putting a strain on our hospitals, aged-care services and pensions, with economists predicting an escalating financial crisis. What many people have not predicted, however, is that with more and more elderly Australians appearing, and reappearing, in court for issues related to illegal drugs, our already-full prisons - and prison hospitals - will be in danger of becoming crowded with ailing grandmas and grandpas.
During his twilight years of smoking and dealing cannabis, my father spent his extra tax-free cash on improving his lifestyle. He invested in a rowing machine, a racing bicycle, a surfboard and a wetsuit. He bought health food in bulk from a co-op, purchased plane tickets to visit friends and relatives interstate, and picked up new cymbals for his treasured drum kit - acquisitions that kept him healthy and independent until the ripe old age of 80.
When I think of the last, happy decade of my father's life, I'm reminded of a piece of graffiti scrawled on the wall in the back room of Lotus's place in Byron Bay. It's a quote by the 13th-century Persian poet Rumi: "Out beyond ideas of right-doing and wrong-doing, there is a field. I'll meet you there."
This is an extract from Griffith Review 45: The Way We Work, published on July 23.
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