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Great post Diva. reposted.
Santa 1881.
Illustration by Thomas Nast who, with Clement Clarke Moore , helped to create the modern image of Santa Claus.
Wikipedia.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Claus
Bruce Springsteen Friends- Merry Christmas Baby
Chinese Medicine Yields Secrets: Atomic Mechanism of Two-Headed Molecule Derived from Chang Shan, a Traditional Chinese Herb
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/12/121223152433.htm
Dec. 23, 2012 — The mysterious inner workings of Chang Shan -- a Chinese herbal medicine used for thousands of years to treat fevers associated with malaria -- have been uncovered thanks to a high-resolution structure solved at The Scripps Research Institute (TSRI).
Described in the journal Nature this week, the structure shows in atomic detail how a two-headed compound derived from the active ingredient in Chang Shan works. Scientists have known that this compound, called halofuginone (a derivative of the febrifugine), can suppress parts of the immune system -- but nobody knew exactly how.
The new structure shows that, like a wrench in the works, halofuginone jams the gears of a molecular machine that carries out "aminoacylation," a crucial biological process that allows organisms to synthesize the proteins they need to live. Chang Shan, also known as Dichroa febrifuga Lour, probably helps with malarial fevers because traces of a halofuginone-like chemical in the herb interfere with this same process in malaria parasites, killing them in an infected person's bloodstream.
"Our new results solved a mystery that has puzzled people about the mechanism of action of a medicine that has been used to treat fever from a malaria infection going back probably 2,000 years or more," said Paul Schimmel, PhD, the Ernest and Jean Hahn Professor and Chair of Molecular Biology and Chemistry and member of The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology at TSRI. Schimmel led the research with TSRI postdoctoral fellow Huihao Zhou, PhD.
Halofuginone has been in clinical trials for cancer, but the high-resolution picture of the molecule suggests it has a modularity that would make it useful as a template to create new drugs for numerous other diseases.
The Process of Aminoacylation and its Importance to Life
Aminoacylation is a crucial step in the synthesis of proteins, the end products of gene expression. When genes are expressed, their DNA sequence is first read and transcribed into RNA, a similar molecule. The RNA is then translated into proteins, which are chemically very different from DNA and RNA but are composed of chains of amino acid molecules strung together in the order called for in the DNA.
Necessary for this translation process are a set of molecules known as transfer RNAs (tRNAs), which shuttle amino acids to the growing protein chain where they are added like pearls on a string. But before the tRNAs can move the pearls in place, they must first grab hold of them.
Aminoacylation is the biological process whereby the amino acid's pearls are attached to these tRNA shuttles. A class of enzymes known as aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases is responsible for attaching the amino acids to the tRNAs, and Schimmel and his colleagues have been examining the molecular details of this process for years. Their work has given scientists insight into everything from early evolution to possible targets for future drug development.
Over time what has emerged as the picture of this process basically involves three molecular players: a tRNA, an amino acid and the aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase enzyme that brings them together. A fourth molecule called ATP is a microscopic form of fuel that gets consumed in the process.
The new work shows that halofuginone gets its potency by interfering with the tRNA synthetase enzyme that attaches the amino acid proline to the appropriate tRNA. It does this by blocking the active site of the enzyme where both the tRNA and the amino acid come together, with each half of the halofuginone blocking one side or the other.
Interestingly, said Schimmel, ATP is also needed for the halofuginone to bind. Nothing like that has ever been seen in biochemistry before.
"This is a remarkable example where a substrate of an enzyme (ATP) captures an inhibitor of the same enzyme, so that you have an enzyme-substrate-inhibitor complex," said Schimmel.
The article, "ATP-Directed Capture of Bioactive Herbal-Based Medicine on Human tRNA Synthetase," by Huihao Zhou, Litao Sun, Xiang-Lei Yang and Paul Schimmel was published in the journal Nature on Dec. 23, 2012.
This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health through grants #GM15539, #23562 and #88278 and by a fellowship from the National Foundation for Cancer Research.
Understanding Cell Organization to Tackle Cancer
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/12/121223152622.htm
Dec. 23, 2012 — Scientists at The University of Manchester have identified how cells know which way up they need to be. The discovery could help in the fight against cancer because in the early stages of the disease the cells become disorganised.
Professor Charles Streuli and Dr Nasreen Akhtar of the Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell-Matrix Research have conducted new research that leads to a better understanding of cell polarity. Properly organised tissues are vital to maintaining functional organs and a healthy body. Part of being organised includes cells being in the correct position within the tissue and the right way up, because the top and bottom of cells have different functions.
The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a layer of protein rich material that surrounds tissues and helps to design and shape all of our organs. Previous studies have demonstrated that the ECM sticks to the cells and guides them into the right position. What hadn't been identified is how the ECM communicates that message.
To understand this better Professor Streuli and Dr Akhtar looked at epithelial cells, which make up the majority of tissues within the body. They studied epithelial cells of the breast, which make milk. These cells also form the linings of mammary ducts to carry milk towards the nipple. It's vital that these cells are organised correctly in order to make milk accessible for the baby. One of the first signs of cancer is that the epithelial cells become disorganised.
Breast epithelial cells connect to the ECM through receptors called integrins. In experiments using mice Professor Streuli and Dr Akhtar removed one of the genes responsible for integrins. They found that without that gene, the cells were both the wrong way round and in the wrong place so the breast tissue became disorganised. They then tried removing integrins in cultured cells from the breast, which produced the same effect of disorder.
Further study revealed that within the cell the integrin receptors connect to the protein ILK. This protein then links to microtubules, a network that forms the transport machinery of the cell. Integrins and microtubules ensure that inside the cell the correct proteins are transported to the top and the bottom of the cell.
The findings have been published in the journal Nature Cell Biology. Commenting on the research Professor Streuli says: "What we identified is a vital interplay between the transport machinery and the integrin receptors which makes sure that proteins are transported to the correct area of the cell. Without this interplay the proteins end up in the wrong place, and this can lead to cells becoming disorganised."
He continues: "What's really interesting is that when we compared breast tissue from our experiments with tissues of patients with early forms of breast cancer, they looked very similar. The cells were upside down and disorganised so they couldn't carry out their functions. We hope that our work to better understand cell polarity could ultimately lead to better diagnosis for cancer patients."
Whilst Professor Streuli and Dr Akhtar only looked at epithelial cells within the breast, they are confident their findings will translate to other organs. The accuracy of their experiments was greatly increased through the use of special 3D cultures to grow the cells, where they form tiny organs that look remarkably similar to real breast tissue.
Dr Akhtar explains: "Growing the breast cells so that they can form 3D structures rather than on hard petri dishes means they develop in a way that is much more akin to how they grow in the body. We were one of the first groups in the UK to be using this technology and we've been really pleased with the results."
Dr Akhtar has been working on this research for five years. She says: "I've been touched by cancer in my own family so I'm really passionate about understanding this devastating disease better. Over 90% of cancers come from epithelial cells, which is why we chose to study them. It's fundamental to understand how healthy cells work properly in order to fully appreciate why they go wrong when cancer develops, and how best to combat the disease."
The next stage of the research will be to investigate the link between altered levels of integrin and cancer, to determine whether this causes the disorganised nature of cells seen in the early stages of the disease.
Study Turns Parasite Invasion Theory On Its Head
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/12/121223152626.htm
Dec. 23, 2012 — Current thinking on how the Toxoplasma gondii parasite invades its host is incorrect, according to a study published today in Nature Methods describing a new technique to knock out genes. The findings could have implications for other parasites from the same family, including malaria, and suggest that drugs that are currently being developed to block this invasion pathway may be unsuccessful.
Toxoplasma gondii is a parasite that commonly infects cats but is also carried by other warm-blooded animals, including humans. Up to a third of the UK population are chronically infected with the parasite. In most cases the acute infection causes only flu-like symptoms. However, women who become infected during pregnancy can pass the parasite to their unborn child which can result in serious health problems for the baby such as blindness and brain damage. People who have compromised immunity, such as individuals infected with HIV, are also at risk of serious complication due to reactivation of dormant cysts found in the brain..
Researchers at the Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology at the University of Glasgow made the discovery using a new technique to knock out specific genes in the parasite's genome. They specifically looked at three genes that are considered to be essential for the parasite to invade cells within its host to establish an infection.
"We found that we can remove each of these genes individually and the parasite can still penetrate the host cell, showing for the first time that they are not essential for host cell invasion as was previously thought," said Dr Markus Meissner, a Wellcome Trust Senior Research Fellow who led the study. "This means that the parasite must have other invasion strategies at its disposal that need to be investigated."
The genes the researchers looked at form the core of the parasite's gliding machinery that enable it to move around. In the past, researchers have only ever been able to reduce the expression level of these genes in the parasite, which did lead to a reduction in host cell invasion but invasion was never blocked completely. This was attributed to the low levels of gene expression that persisted. However, with the new technique, the team were able to completely remove the genes of interest. Unexpectedly they found that the parasites were still able to invade.
"One of the genes we looked at is the equivalent of a malaria gene that is a major candidate for vaccine development. Our findings would suggest that such a vaccine may not be successful at preventing malaria infection and we need to revisit our understanding of how this family of parasites invades host cells," added Dr Meissner.
As well as malaria, a number of other parasites that affect livestock also belong to the same family. The findings could also provide clues to new treatments for these diseases, which cause substantial economic losses worldwide
reposted two places. Great feature there trader.
Natural Resource Plays
Sector: Oil~Gas~Mining
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viking. You brought EPGL to us a little while back.
I am no longer a paid member.
At my new home (my profile).
Good morning AFPW. I cancelled my sell order for $0.0002.
Now a free member on iHub.
And have a new home, link on my profile.
Life membership there too.
I miss the good people around here for sure.
Posted your 000 there this morning.
Some triple 000 plays.
trader53.
http://investorshub.advfn.com/Triple-000-Penny-Plays-23986/
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Hi trader53.
triple 000 list reposted iHub and my (other)
Coffee Shoppe.
EPGL. 'Good Morning America' news video.
Hi Rocket. Watching for MMTC to move up.
It came off a bottom yesterday.
Didn't touch that sell button.
Young Scientist Helps Identify Cause of Widespread Eye Disease
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/12/121221081709.htm
Dec. 21, 2012 — Branch retinal vein occlusion -- blockage of the blood vessels that channel blood from the retina -- is a common eye disease. A type of blood clot in the eye, the disease causes reduced vision, and people with the disease also typically have an increased risk of hypertension, diabetes and other serious conditions. A young scientist from the University of Copenhagen has made a significant contribution to finding the cause of the disease.
A team of researchers at the University of Copenhagen, Glostrup Hospital and several other ophthalmology departments at Danish hospitals have now shown that it is highly probable that thickening of the arterial walls is behind the common eye disease known as branch retinal vein occlusion -- a type of blood clot in the eye that blocks the vessels that transport blood from the retina. The disease leads to reduced vision and affects more than 14 million people worldwide.
"Our new results indicate that branch retinal vein occlusion is caused by thickening of the arterial wall. This makes it crucial for doctors to treat patients diagnosed with the disease with medicine to lower blood pressure in order to prevent blood clots from forming in the heart and brain. Branch retinal vein occlusion is often a sign of increased risk of blood clots in other parts of the body," explains Mette Bertelsen, PhD student at the University of Copenhagen.
Targeted treatment
Mette Bertelsen, head of the research project, and her colleagues photographically verified the diagnosis of branch retinal vein occlusion in 1168 people. They identified the patients' other diseases with the help of Danish national registries and compared the data to that of 116.800 healthy people.
By looking at the illness and mortality statistics of Danes diagnosed with a blood clot in the retina's main blood vessels, both before and after the occurrence of the retinal blood clot, Mette Bertelsen and her colleges has now shown that while these patients show a higher frequency of arterial disease in the heart and brain, they do not display a higher frequency of venous disease. This new knowledge, which has been published in the British Medical Journal, means that disease prevention and treatment of these patients should be targeted at hypertension, diabetes and atherosclerosis, while doctors can save patients from unnecessary treatment with anticoagulants.
Thickened arteries the villains
Doctors have long debated the three most likely theories about what causes branch retinal vein occlusion. Discussion centres on whether the disease is due to a) conditions in the veins that cause blood clots, b) a change in the composition of the blood, or c) blockage of the vein due to compression from an adjacent artery that has thickened and thus compresses the vein and hinders blood flow.
"To understand what is actually happening, it can be helpful to picture a garden hose that has been squeezed by a larger hose, cutting off the water supply. That is essentially what happens when a vein is compressed by a thickened artery. Clearly, the consequences can be serious," explains Mette Bertelsen. She adds that no one knows exactly how many Danes suffer from branch retinal vein occlusion, but that more than 14 million people have the disease worldwide.
Bats May Hold Clues to Long Life and Disease Resistance
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/12/121221114114.htm
Dec. 20, 2012 — Bats are amazing creatures. They've been around for at least 65 million years, and in that time have become one of the most abundant and widespread mammals on Earth.
The Bat Pack, a team of researchers at the Australian Animal Health Laboratory (AAHL) in Geelong, conduct a wide range of research into bats and bat borne viruses, and their potential effects on the human population, as part of the effort to safeguard Australia from exotic and emerging pests and diseases.
Their paper, published today in the journal Science, provides an insight into the evolution of the bat's flight, resistance to viruses, and relatively long life.
The Bat Pack, in collaboration with the Beijing Genome Institute, led a team that sequenced the genomes of two bat species -- the Black Flying Fox, an Australian mega bat, and the David's Myotis, a Chinese micro bat.
Once the genomes were sequenced, they compared them to the genomes of other mammals, including humans, to find where the similarities and differences lay.
Chris Cowled, post-doctoral fellow at AAHL says the research may eventually lead to strategies to treat, or even prevent disease in humans.
"A deeper understanding of these evolutionary adaptations in bats may lead to better treatments for human diseases, and may eventually enable us to predict or perhaps even prevent outbreaks of emerging bat viruses," Dr Cowled said.
"Bats are a natural reservoir for several lethal viruses, such as Hendra, Ebola and SARS, but they often don't succumb to disease from these viruses. They're also the only mammal that can fly, and they live a long time compared to animals similar in size."
Flying is a very energy intensive activity that also produces toxic by-products, and bats have developed some novel genes to deal with the toxins. Some of these genes, including P53, are implicated in the development of cancer or the detection and repair of damaged DNA.
"What we found intriguing was that some of these genes also have secondary roles in the immune system," Dr Cowled said.
"We're proposing that the evolution of flight led to a sort of spill over effect, influencing not only the immune system, but also things like ageing and cancer."
The research was a global effort involving the Beijing Genome Institute in Shenzhen, China; Australia's national science research agency, the CSIRO; the University of Copenhagen; Wuhan Institute of Virology at the Chinese Academy of Sciences; the Naval Medical Research Center and Henry M. Jackson Foundation in the USA; Uniformed Services University, USA; and the Graduate Medical School at the Duke-National University of Singapore.
Researchers Discover Genetic Basis for Eczema, New Avenue to Therapies
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/12/121221131259.htm
Dec. 21, 2012 — Researchers at Oregon State University have announced the discovery of an underlying genetic cause of atopic dermatitis, a type of eczema most common in infancy that also affects millions of adults around the world with dry, itchy and inflamed skin lesions.
The findings were just published in PLoS ONE, a professional journal, and may set the stage for new therapeutic approaches to this frustrating syndrome, which is difficult to treat and has no known cure. Eczema is also related to, and can sometimes cause asthma, a potentially deadly immune dysfunction.
Pharmaceutical scientists at OSU found in laboratory studies that eczema can be triggered by inadequate Ctip2, a protein and master regulator that affects other genetic functions. They have identified two ways in which improper function of Ctip2 can lead to eczema.
In a recent publication, they found that Ctip2 controls lipid biosynthesis in the skin, the fats that are needed to help keep skin healthy and hydrated. In the new study, they discovered that Ctip2 suppresses TSLP, a cytokine protein produced by skin cells that can trigger inflammation.
Levels of this inflammatory TSLP, which is ordinarily undetectable in human skin, were found to be 1,000 times higher in laboratory animals that had been genetically modified to have no Ctip2 production in their skin.
"In these studies, we've basically shown that inadequate Ctip2 is reducing the lipids in skin that it needs to stay healthy, protect itself and perform its function," said Arup Indra, an associate professor in the OSU College of Pharmacy. "At the same time this can allow unwanted formation of proteins that trigger inflammation. The skin's ability to resist inflammation is going down just as the amount of inflammation is going up, and the underlying reason is that Ctip2 is not doing its job."
"Either or both of these problems can lead to eczema," Indra said.
Atopic dermatitis is associated with a dysfunctional immune response, but researchers have never understood the underlying cause. Existing treatments use moisturizers to try to protect skin, and in difficult cases powerful steroid drugs can help, but they often have significant unwanted side effects, especially in long-term use.
"With a better understanding of just what is causing eczema on a genetic basis, we should be able to personalize treatments, determine exactly what each person needs, and develop new therapies," Indra said. "This might be with topical compounds that increase Ctip2 expression in skin cells, or customized treatments to restore an individual person's lipid profile. In the future, systemic epigenetic modification might even be possible."
The creation at OSU of the laboratory model to study this issue is also of considerable importance, Indra said. There's evidence it could be used to screen for drugs with potent anti-inflammatory activities.
Eczema is a persistent skin rash that can be fairly common in infants or youth, which some research indicates may be linked to food or pollen allergens. Most people outgrow it as they reach adulthood, but some suffer from the debilitating condition their entire life.
"Our skin is the largest organ in the human body and one of the most important," Indra said. "It's our first barrier of defense, is in a constant battle against external insults, is influenced by both genetics and the environment, and has to be finely tuned to do many jobs. In eczema, this process begins to break down."
Eczema allows significant loss of fluids through the skin, allows allergens to penetrate, and in severe cases can cause a systemic inflammatory response.
Elderberry Tea...
My wife had a painful inflamed vein in her leg. From hard work and being on/off her feet.
Went to doctor, etc. Then with personal recommendation from friends and a solid
perusal of herbal sites.... came up with elderberry for that.
Within two hours of drinking a big cup yesterday a calm came to that leg.
A bruise that had developed from swelling - was gone this morning.
Grandmother was right , eh!
Went back to work in much better shape!
She had already dropped the naproxin sodium from the doctor, a reaction to it.
Wonderful glassy.
Elderberry Tea
My wife had a painful inflamed vein in her leg. From hard work and being on/off her feet.
Went to doctor, etc. Then with personal recommendation from friends and a solid
perusal of herbal sites.... came up with elderberry for that.
Within two hours of drinking a big cup yesterday a calm came to that leg.
A bruise that had developed from swelling - was gone this morning.
Grandmother was right , eh!
Went back to work in much better shape!
She had already dropped the naproxin sodium from the doctor, a reaction to it.
Have I got a tea and its medicinal power story for you guys.
Back in a bit. Wow. Just saw it. nice!
Nooner. Have I got a tea and its medicinal power story for you guys.
Back in a bit. Wow. Just saw it. nice!
'holla. will repost all updates to iBox somewhere.
Especially at my new home
(Coffee Shoppe) my profile.
Good morning you guys.
I am of course hanging out in my new home.
(profile link)Coffee Shoppe.
Thanks for being here.
Are Bacteria Making You Hungry?
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/12/121219142301.htm
Dec. 19, 2012 — Over the last half decade, it has become increasingly clear that the normal gastrointestinal (GI) bacteria play a variety of very important roles in the biology of human and animals. Now Vic Norris of the University of Rouen, France, and coauthors propose yet another role for GI bacteria: that they exert some control over their hosts' appetites. Their review was published online ahead of print in the Journal of Bacteriology.
This hypothesis is based in large part on observations of the number of roles bacteria are already known to play in host biology, as well as their relationship to the host system. "Bacteria both recognize and synthesize neuroendocrine hormones," Norris et al. write. "This has led to the hypothesis that microbes within the gut comprise a community that forms a microbial organ interfacing with the mammalian nervous system that innervates the gastrointestinal tract." (That nervous system innervating the GI tract is called the "enteric nervous system." It contains roughly half a billion neurons, compared with 85 billion neurons in the central nervous system.)
"The gut microbiota respond both to both the nutrients consumed by their hosts and to the state of their hosts as signaled by various hormones," write Norris et al. That communication presumably goes both ways: they also generate compounds that are used for signaling within the human system, "including neurotransmitters such as GABA, amino acids such as tyrosine and tryptophan -- which can be converted into the mood-determining molecules, dopamine and serotonin" -- and much else, says Norris.
Furthermore, it is becoming increasingly clear that gut bacteria may play a role in diseases such as cancer, metabolic syndrome, and thyroid disease, through their influence on host signaling pathways. They may even influence mood disorders, according to recent, pioneering studies, via actions on dopamine and peptides involved in appetite. The gut bacterium, Campilobacter jejuni, has been implicated in the induction of anxiety in mice, says Norris.
But do the gut flora in fact use their abilities to influence choice of food? The investigators propose a variety of experiments that could help answer this question, including epidemiological studies, and "experiments correlating the presence of particular bacterial metabolites with images of the activity of regions of the brain associated with appetite and pleasure."
Pocket Test Measures Fifty Things in a Drop of Blood
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/12/121219152621.htm
Dec. 19, 2012 — A new device about the size of a business card could allow health care providers to test for insulin and other blood proteins, cholesterol, and even signs of viral or bacterial infection all at the same time -- with one drop of blood. Preliminary tests of the V-chip, created by scientists at The Methodist Hospital Research Institute and MD Anderson Cancer Center, were just published by Nature Communications.
"The V-Chip could make it possible to bring tests to the bedside, remote areas, and other types of point-of-care needs," said Nanomedicine faculty member Lidong Qin, Ph.D., the project's principal investigator. "V-Chip is accurate, cheap, and portable. It requires only a drop of a sample, not a vial of blood, and can do 50 different tests in one go."
Similar assays are typically done using heavy, large, complex equipment such as mass spectrometers, or require fluoroscopy analysis, which must also be done in a lab.
The V-chip, short for "volumetric bar-chart chip," on the other hand, can be carried around in a pocket. It is composed of two thin pieces of glass, about 3 in. by 2 in. In between are wells for four things: (1) hydrogen peroxide, (2) up to 50 different antibodies to specific proteins, DNA or RNA fragments, or lipids of interest, and the enzyme catalase, (3) serum or other sample, and (4) a dye -- any dye will do. Initially, the wells are kept separate from each other. A shift in the glass plates brings the wells into contact, creating a contiguous, zig-zagged space from one end of the V-chip to the other.
As the substance of interest -- say, insulin -- binds to antibodies bound to the glass slide, catalase is made active and splits nearby hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen gas. This approach is called ELISA, or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The oxygen pushes the dye up the column. The more present insulin is, the more oxygen is created, and the farther dye is pushed up the slide. Tests show that distance is more or less proportional to the amount of substrate present, in this example, insulin. The end result is a visual bar chart. Easy to read and accurate, Qin says, though development continues.
"The sensitivity of the V-chip can be improved if narrower and longer bar channels are used," Qin said. "Our next steps are to make the device more user friendly and be so simple to use, it barely needs instructions."
Qin is also a Weill Cornell Medical College assistant professor of cell and developmental biology.
Why Our Backs Can't Read Braille: Scientists Map Sensory Nerves in Mouse Skin
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/12/121219173953.htm
Dec. 19, 2012 — Johns Hopkins scientists have created stunning images of the branching patterns of individual sensory nerve cells. Their report, published online in the journal eLife on Dec. 18, details the arrangement of these branches in skin from the backs of mice. The branching patterns define ten distinct groups that, the researchers say, likely correspond to differences in what the nerves do and could hold clues for pain management and other areas of neurological study.
Each type of nerve cell that the team studied was connected at one end to the spinal cord through a thin, wire-like projection called an axon. On the other side of the cell's "body" was another axon that led to the skin. The axons branched in specific patterns, depending on the cell type, to reach their targets within the skin. "The complexity and precision of these branching patterns is breath-taking," says Jeremy Nathans, M.D., Ph.D., a Howard Hughes researcher and professor of molecular biology and genetics at the Institute for Basic Biomedical Sciences at the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine.
Skin is the body's largest sensory organ, and the nerves that pervade it are responsible for sending signals to the brain -- signals¬ perceived as sensations of pain, temperature, pressure and itch, to name a few. Stimuli that prompt signals, like a change in temperature, can come directly from the skin, or they can come from hair follicles embedded in the skin. Each hair follicle consists of a tiny cylinder of cells within the skin that surrounds the root of an individual hair.
Nathans says that many axons catalogued in their study wrapped themselves around hair follicles. Different types of axons contact the follicles in different ways and at different depths within the skin, presumably to collect particular kinds of information.
One of the challenges in visualizing axons arises because their overlapping, maze-like pathways make it very difficult to tell one from another. To overcome this hurdle, Nathans' team, led by Hao Wu, Ph.D., a post-doctoral fellow in his lab, used a genetic trick to randomly color just a few dozen nerve cells out of the thousands in the skin of developing mice. Then Wu and colleague John Williams used software to trace the pattern of each nerve cell.
The axons of one type of nerve cell, for example, surrounded only a single hair follicle, its ends looking like a bear trap because of the vertical peaks flanking each hair column. Another type, accounting for 50 per cent of those the researchers saw, had 75 branch points, on average, allowing it to cover much larger areas and contact about 50 hair follicles per axon.
The axons of other nerve cell types were simpler and shorter, branching less but still encircling, like the tendrils of a vine, multiple hair follicles. Still another type had endings that appeared more like brambles -- less organized and bushier and without any connections to hair follicles. These types, too, could be more or less branched and, therefore, covered a particular area of skin more or less densely.
One of the most remarkable axon patterns looked like an extensive vine on a trellis, with its tendrils wrapping around approximately 200 hair follicles (see image). The total length of one of these axons, with all its branches, was several times longer than the body of a mouse.
Nathans says the images now in hand will help scientists "make more sense" out of known responses to stimulation of the skin. For example, if a single nerve cell is responsible for monitoring a patch of skin a quarter of an inch square, multiple simultaneous points of pressure within that patch will only be perceived by the brain as a single signal. "That is why we can't read Braille using the skin on our backs: the multiple bumps that make up a Braille symbol are within such a small area that the axon branches can't distinguish them. By contrast, each sensory axon on the fingertip occupies a much smaller territory and this permits our fingertips to accurately distinguish small objects."
Nathans hopes that this new data can be paired with molecular and neurological data to determine the unique functions of each class of nerve cell that targets the skin. But he cautions that the ten categories they found are probably not exhaustive. "We know that there are other types of nerve endings in highly sensitive areas like our fingertips and lips. Even within the skin on the backs of mice, we suspect that our technique was not able to capture every type of nerve cell."
Many unanswered questions remain in this area, says Nathans, especially how these "beautiful branching patterns" are produced during embryonic development and what role(s) each type of nerve cell plays.
This work was supported by grants from the Human Frontier Science Program, the Johns Hopkins Brain Sciences Institute and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute.