Thus, previous SARS-CoV-2 infection imprints a pro-inflammatory macrophage phenotype, that mounts exaggerated chemokine- and IFN responses, but likely exhibits impaired T-cell stimulatory and pro-resolving capacities. This was in line with previous studies identifying a dysfunctional, pro-inflammatory monocyte activation for up to 12 weeks after SARS-CoV-2 infection7,13 and additionally suggested the long-term persistence of a pro-inflammatory macrophage state following mild disease. Changes in gene expression of post COVID-19 MDM were amplified by inflammatory stimuli, suggesting a “trained” state that lasted for at least 5 months post infection.
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