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Where Europeans came from:
http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-29213892
common_man
A way to more happiness:
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/09/12/grammar-book-happiness_n_5793208.html
common_man
"thank God For Stopping the war"
I stayed with Ibrahim for nearly three months at his House of Peace on Mount of Olives.
Here's what he wrote today:
Dear Brothers and Sisters everywhere
I want to thank every one of you for all prayers help & support..
As you know the difficult time here there are almost over . so thank god they took fire break.
and we have to continue pray for the mothers who lost there children and the people who got wounded and for the one who is living in pain and pray for mother family’s who is living around them as you know we will continue to do as much as we can right know…
But I really still need your help and support from each and one of you
And we still welcome you here in the holy land.
God bless you
Ibrahim
Dear Friends everywhere
Here in Jerusalem in the land of prophets where peace is going to be .
it is a holy land for all knd of people , and my goal in life is to bring peace and love all over the world
So please I ask every one of you dear friends to pray for the peace of Jerusalem.
Please send lots of positive energy and much love
Please donate to help Haj Ibrahim survive his one of the most difficult moment in his life. Please read the story about Ibrahim and his Peace House on the Mountain of Olives and donate to help him maintain the House and get out of the crises which cost him a heart attack.
Ibrahim Abu Alhawa, Ahmad, Samira
Bank Hapoalim Jerusalem
IBAN IL48 – 0110 – 6800 – 0001 – 1050 – 723
SWIFT POALILIT
Call him to express your support: 052-2201631
Paypal link : https://www.paypal.com/cgi-bin/webscr?cmd=_s-xclick&hosted_button_id=ZCD8ZDFRFHQLJ
All of you are in my thoughts I love each and one of you
With love
May Peace prevail On Earth
Ibrahim
common_man
Would some kind-hearted amicus humani generis please suggest ways of helping first the Kurds of Sincar (Sinjar), Iraq and then the other Kurds?
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kurdistan
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yazidi
Thanks to the White House, airdrops are taking place, but because we are getting 100000 children asylum seekers from south of the border, may I propose releasing 100000 Americans to voluntarily migrate to Irbil or Hawler in Iraq Kurdistan Governate?
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/08/07/obama-iraq-strikes_n_5660313.html
I want to be the first to go.
We could hitch a ride on an Air Force airplane going there anyway.
http://online.wsj.com/articles/iraqi-militants-seize-christian-villages-1407404503
They love us and we must show our love back to them.
All other nations including China, India, Russia, Turkey and Syria are encouraged to give of their conversation, culture and compassion to the Kurds. Live there. Migrate.
May I add it is safe: http://www.usbusinessiraq.com/regions/iraqi-kurdistan/
I call it the league of love. It should turn out better than Gallipoli, fuagf. And thank you for your thoughtful postings.
common_man
Email or e-mail Mining Global @
info@miningglobalinc.com
Why Israel Lies
By Chris Hedges Posted on Truthdig on August 3, 2014
All governments lie, as I.F. Stone pointed out, including Israel and Hamas. But Israel engages in the kinds of jaw-dropping lies that characterize despotic and totalitarian regimes. It does not deform the truth; it inverts it. It routinely paints a picture for the outside world that is diametrically opposed to reality. And all of us reporters who have covered the occupied territories have run into Israel’s Alice-in-Wonderland narratives, which we dutifully insert into our stories—required under the rules of American journalism—although we know they are untrue.
I saw small boys baited and killed by Israeli soldiers in the Gaza refugee camp of Khan Younis. The soldiers swore at the boys in Arabic over the loudspeakers of their armored jeep. The boys, about 10 years old, then threw stones at an Israeli vehicle and the soldiers opened fire, killing some, wounding others. I was present more than once as Israeli troops drew out and shot Palestinian children in this way. Such incidents, in the Israeli lexicon, become children caught in crossfire. I was in Gaza when F-16 attack jets dropped 1,000-pound iron fragmentation bombs on overcrowded hovels in Gaza City. I saw the corpses of the victims, including children. This became a surgical strike on a bomb-making factory. I have watched Israel demolish homes and entire apartment blocks to create wide buffer zones between the Palestinians and the Israeli troops that ring Gaza. I have interviewed the destitute and homeless families, some camped out in crude shelters erected in the rubble. The destruction becomes the demolition of the homes of terrorists. I have stood in the remains of schools—Israel struck two United Nations schools in the last six days, causing at least 10 fatalities at one in Rafah on Sunday and at least 19 at one in the Jebaliya refugee camp Wednesday—as well as medical clinics and mosques. I have heard Israel claim that errant rockets or mortar fire from the Palestinians caused these and other deaths, or that the attacked spots were being used as arms depots or launching sites. I, along with every other reporter I know who has worked in Gaza, have never seen any evidence that Hamas uses civilians as “human shields.”
There is a perverted logic to Israel’s repeated use of the Big Lie—Große Lüge—the lie favored by tyrants from Adolf Hitler and Josef Stalin to Saddam Hussein. The Big Lie feeds the two reactions Israel seeks to elicit—racism among its supporters and terror among its victims.
By painting a picture of an army that never attacks civilians, that indeed goes out of its way to protect them, the Big Lie says Israelis are civilized and humane, and their Palestinian opponents are inhuman monsters. The Big Lie serves the idea that the slaughter in Gaza is a clash of civilizations, a war between democracy, decency and honor on one side and Islamic barbarism on the other. And in the uncommon cases when news of atrocities penetrates to the wider public, Israel blames the destruction and casualties on Hamas.
George Orwell in his novel “Nineteen Eighty-Four” called this form of propaganda doublethink. Doublethink uses “logic against logic” and “repudiate[s] morality while laying claim to it.” The Big Lie does not allow for the nuances and contradictions that can plague conscience. It is a state-orchestrated response to the dilemma of cognitive dissonance. The Big Lie permits no gray zones. The world is black and white, good and evil, righteous and unrighteous. The Big Lie allows believers to take comfort—a comfort they are desperately seeking—in their own moral superiority at the very moment they have abrogated all morality.
The Big Lie, as the father of American public relations, Edward Bernays, wrote, is limited only by the propagandist’s capacity to fathom and harness the undercurrents of individual and mass psychology. And since most supporters of Israel do not have a desire to know the truth, a truth that would force them to examine their own racism and self-delusions about Zionist and Western moral superiority, like packs of famished dogs they lap up the lies fed to them by the Israeli government. The Big Lie always finds fertile soil in what Bernays called the “logic-proof compartment of dogmatic adherence.” All effective propaganda, Bernays wrote, targets and builds upon these irrational “psychological habits.”
This is the world Franz Kafka envisioned, a world where the irrational becomes rational. It is one where, as Gustave Le Bon noted in “The Crowd: A Study of the Public Mind,” those who supply the masses with the illusions they crave become their master, and “whoever attempts to destroy their illusions is always their victim.” This irrationality explains why the reaction of Israeli supporters to those who have the courage to speak the truth—Uri Avnery, Max Blumenthal, Noam Chomsky, Jonathan Cook, Norman Finkelstein, Amira Hass, Gideon Levy, Ilan Pappé, Henry Siegman and Philip Weiss—is so rabid. That so many of these voices are Jewish, and therefore have more credibility than non-Jews who are among Israel’s cheerleaders, only ratchets up the level of hate.
But the Big Lie is also consciously designed to send a chilling message to Gaza’s Palestinians, who have lost large numbers of their dwellings, clinics, mosques, and power, water and sewage facilities, along with schools and hospitals, who have suffered some 1,650 deaths since this assault began—most of the victims women and children—and who have seen 400,000 people displaced from their homes. The Big Lie makes it clear to the Palestinians that Israel will continue to wage a campaign of state terror and will never admit its atrocities or its intentions. The vast disparity between what Israel says and what Israel does tells the Palestinians that there is no hope. Israel will do and say whatever it wants. International law, like the truth, will always be irrelevant. There will never, the Palestinians understand from the Big Lie, be an acknowledgement of reality by the Israeli leadership.
The Israel Defense Forces website is replete with this black propaganda. “Hamas exploits the IDF’s sensitivity towards protecting civilian structures, particularly holy sites, by hiding command centers, weapons caches and tunnel entrances in mosques,” the IDF site reads. “In Hamas’ world, hospitals are command centers, ambulances are transport vehicles, and medics are human shields,” the site insists.
“... [Israeli] officers are tasked with an enormous responsibility: to protect Palestinian civilians on the ground, no matter how difficult that may be,” the site assures its viewers. And the IDF site provides this quote from a drone operator identified as Lt. Or. “I have personally seen rockets fired at Israel from hospitals and schools, but we couldn’t strike back because of civilians nearby. In one instance, we acquired a target but we saw that there were children in the area. We waited around, and when they didn’t leave we were forced to abort a strike on an important target.”
Israel’s ambassador to the United States, Ron Dermer, in a Big Lie of his own, said last month at a conference of Christians United for Israel that the Israeli army should be given the “Nobel Peace Prize … a Nobel Peace Prize for fighting with unimaginable restraint.”
The Big Lie destroys any possibility of history and therefore any hope for a dialogue between antagonistic parties that can be grounded in truth and reality. While, as Hannah Arendt pointed out, the ancient and modern sophists sought to win an argument at the expense of the truth, those who wield the Big Lie “want a more lasting victory at the expense of reality.” The old sophists, she said, “destroyed the dignity of human thought.” Those who resort to the Big Lie “destroy the dignity of human action.” The result, Arendt warned, is that “history itself is destroyed, and its comprehensibility.” And when facts no longer matter, when there is no shared history grounded in the truth, when people foolishly believe their own lies, there can be no useful exchange of information. The Big Lie, used like a bludgeon by Israel, as perhaps it is designed to be, ultimately reduces all problems in the world to the brutish language of violence. And when oppressed people are addressed only through violence they will answer only through violence.
http://www.truthdig.com/report/page2/why_israel_lies_20140803
common_man
It's acento agudo, acute or sharp accent mark which rises from the lower left to a higher point on the right. Technically and artistically, it is formed with a downward stroke of the writing instrument from upper right to lower left. Also, in French, it's called the accent aigu. Compare with accent grave which goes from upper left to lower right as a superscript.
Enjoy Word Crimes:
Hemp
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about industrial and foodstuff products that are derived from hemp cultivars of the Cannabis plant. For the usage of Cannabis as a drug, see Cannabis (drug). For other uses, see Hemp (disambiguation).
Hemp field in Côtes-d'Armor, Brittany, France
Hemp (from Old English hænep) is a commonly used term for high growing varieties of the Cannabis plant and its products, which include fiber, oil, and seed. Hemp is refined into products such as hemp seed foods, hemp oil, wax, resin, rope, cloth, pulp, paper, and fuel.
Other variants of the herb Cannabis sativa are widely used as a drug, commonly known as marijuana. These variants are typically low growing and have higher content of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). The legality of Cannabis varies widely from country to country, and from state to state in the United States. In many countries regulatory limits for concentrations of psychoactive drug compounds, particularly THC, in hemp require the use of strains of the plant which are bred for low content.[1]
Contents
1 Uses
1.1 Food
1.1.1 Market share
1.1.2 Nutrition
1.1.3 Storage
1.2 Fiber
1.3 Building material
1.4 Plastic and composite materials
1.5 Paper
1.5.1 History and development
1.5.2 Contemporary
1.5.3 Market share
1.6 Jewelry
1.7 Cordage
1.8 Animal bedding
1.9 Water and soil purification
1.10 Weed control
1.11 Fuel
2 Cultivation
2.1 Cultivars
2.2 Harvesting
2.3 Location and crop rotation
2.4 Diseases
2.5 Environmental impact
3 Producers
3.1 Australia
3.2 Canada
3.3 France
3.4 Russia
3.5 United Kingdom
3.6 United States
4 History
4.1 Historical cultivation
4.1.1 Soviet Union
4.1.2 Japan
4.1.3 Portugal
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Uses
Hemp grown for milk animal fodder
Hemp is used for many varieties of products including the manufacture of cordage of varying tensile strength, durable clothing and nutritional products. The bast fibers can be used in 100% hemp products, but are commonly blended with other organic fibers such as flax, cotton or silk, for apparel and furnishings, most commonly at a 55%/45% hemp/cotton blend. The inner two fibers of hemp are more woody and are more often used in non-woven items and other industrial applications, such as mulch, animal bedding and litter. The oil from the fruits ("seeds") oxidizes (commonly, though inaccurately, called "drying") to become solid on exposure to air, similar to linseed oil, and is sometimes used in the manufacture of oil-based paints, in creams as a moisturizing agent, for cooking, and in plastics. Hemp seeds have been used in bird seed mix as well.[2] A survey in 2003 showed that more than 95% of hemp seed sold in the EU was used in animal and bird feed.[3] Hemp seed is also used as a fishing bait.[4]
In modern times hemp is used for industrial purposes including paper, textiles, clothing, biodegradable plastics, construction (as with Hempcrete and insulation), body products, health food and bio-fuel.
Food
Hemp seeds
Hemp seeds can be eaten raw, ground into a meal, sprouted, made into hemp milk (akin to soy milk), prepared as tea,[5] and used in baking. The fresh leaves can also be consumed in salads. Products include cereals, frozen waffles, hemp milk ice cream, hemp tofu, and nut butters. A few companies produce value added hemp seed items that include the seed oils, whole hemp grain (which is sterilized by law in the United States, where they import it from China and Canada), dehulled hemp seed (the whole seed without the mineral rich outer shell), hemp flour, hemp cake (a by-product of pressing the seed for oil) and hemp protein powder.[6]
Market share
Within the UK, the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) has treated hemp as purely a non-food crop. Seed appears on the UK market as a legal food product, and cultivation licenses are available for this purpose. In North America, hemp seed food products are sold, typically in health food stores or through mail order. The United States Department of Agriculture has concluded that "the market potential for hemp seed as a food ingredient is unknown. However, it probably will remain a small market, like those for sesame and poppy seeds."[7] Since 2007 the commercial success of hemp food products has grown considerably.[8][9]
Nutrition
Typical nutritional analysis
of hulled hemp seeds[10]
Calories/100 g 567 kcal
Protein 30.6
Carbohydrate 10.9
Dietary fiber 6.0
Fat 47.2
Saturated fat 5.2
Palmitic 16:0 3.4
Stearic 18:0 1.5
Monounsaturated fat 5.8
Oleic 18:1 (Omega-9) 5.8
Polyunsaturated fat 36.2
Linoleic 18:2 (Omega-6) 27.6
Linolenic 18:3 (Omega-3) 8.7
Gamma-Linolenic 18:3 (Omega-6) 0.8
Cholesterol 0 mg
Moisture 4.7
Ash 6.6
Vitamin A (B-Carotene) 4.0 IU/100g
Thiamine (Vit B1) 1.4 mg
Riboflavin (Vit B2) 0.3 mg
Pyridoxine (Vit B6) 0.1 mg
Vitamin C 1.0 mg
Vitamin E 9.0 IU/100g
Sodium 9.0 mg
Calcium 74.0 mg
Iron 4.7 mg
Approximately 44% of the weight of hempseed is edible oils, containing about 80% essential fatty acids (EFAs); e.g., linoleic acid, omega-6 (LA, 55%), alpha-linolenic acid, omega-3 (ALA, 22%), in addition to gamma-linolenic acid, omega-6 (GLA, 1–4%) and stearidonic acid, omega-3 (SDA, 0–2%). Proteins (including edestin) are the other major component (33%). Hempseed's amino acid profile is "complete" when compared to more common sources of proteins such as meat, milk, eggs and soy.[11] Hemp protein contains all nutritionally significant amino acids, including the 9 essential ones[12] adult bodies cannot produce. Proteins are considered complete when they contain all the essential amino acids in sufficient quantities and ratios to meet the body's needs. The proportions of linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid in one tablespoon (15 ml) per day of hemp oil easily provides human daily requirements for EFAs.
Hemp substitute milk
Japanese hemp seed seasoning
Swiss hemp beer uses blossoms
Hemp seed
Storage
Hemp oil, like any food oil rich in essential fatty acids, will spontaneously oxidize and turn rancid within a short period of time if not stored properly; Its shelf life is extended when stored in a dark airtight container and refrigerated.
Fiber
Hemp stem showing fibers.
Hemp fiber has been used extensively throughout history, with production climaxing soon after being introduced to the New World. Items ranging from rope, to fabrics, to industrial materials were made from hemp fiber. Hemp was often used to make sail canvas, and the word canvas derives from cannabis.[13][14] Today, a modest hemp fabric industry exists, and hemp fibers can be used in clothing.[15] Pure hemp has a texture similar to linen.[16]
Hemp dress
Hemp dress
100% hemp fabric
Hemp sack (Japan)
Building material
Main article: hempcrete
Concrete-like blocks made with hemp and lime have been used as an insulating material for construction. Such blocks are not strong enough to be used for structural elements; they must be supported by a brick, wood, or steel frame.[17] However hemp fibres are extremely strong and durable and have been shown to be used in replacement of wood for many jobs including creating very durable and breathable homes.
The first example of the use of hempcrete was in 1986 in France with the renovation of the Maison de la Turque in Nogent-sur-Seine by the innovator Charles Rasetti.[18] In the UK hemp lime was first used in 2000 for the construction of two test dwellings in Haverhill.[19] Designed by Modece Architects,[20] who pioneered hemp's use in UK construction, the hemp houses were monitored in comparison with other standard dwellings by BRE. Completed in 2009, The Renewable House is one of the most technologically advanced made from hemp-based materials.[21] The first US home made of hemp-based materials was completed in August 2010 in Asheville, North Carolina.[22]
Hemp fiber board
Hemp thermal insulation
Hemp interior thermal insulation blocks
Hemp acoustic ceiling insulation
Concrete block made with hemp in France
A panellized system of hemp-lime panels for use in building construction is currently under test in a European Union funded research collaboration lead by the University of Bath. The panels are being designed to assure high quality construction, rapid on-site erection, optimal hygrothermal performance from day one and energy and resource efficient buildings. The 36 month long work programme aims to refine product and manufacturing protocols, produce data for certification and marketing, warranty, insurance cover and availability of finance. It also includes the development of markets in Britain, France and Spain.[23]
Plastic and composite materials
Main article: Bioplastic
A mixture of fibreglass, hemp fiber, kenaf, and flax has been used since 2002 to make composite panels for automobiles.[8][24] The choice of which bast fiber to use is primarily based on cost and availability. Various car makers are beginning to use hemp in their cars, including Audi, BMW, Ford, GM, Chrysler, Honda, Iveco, Lotus, Mercedes, Mitsubishi, Porsche, Saturn, Volkswagen[25] and Volvo. For example, the Lotus Eco Elise[26] and the Mercedes C-Class both contain hemp (up to 20 kg in each car in the case of the latter).[27]
Hemp plastic interior of a car door
Hemp plastic automobile glove box
Hemp plastic column, automobile
Hemp composite sink basin
Paper
History and development
Wrapping paper with hemp fiber excavated from the Han Tomb of Wu Di (140-87 BC) at Baqiao, Xi'An
The first identified coarse paper, made from hemp, dates to the early Western Han Dynasty, two hundred years before the nominal invention of papermaking by Cai Lun, who improved and standardized paper production using a range of inexpensive materials, including hemp ends, approximately 2000 years ago.[28] Recycled hemp clothing, rags and fishing nets were used as inputs for paper production.
The Saint Petersburg, Russia paper mill of Goznak opened in 1818. It used hemp as its main input material. Paper from the mill was used in the printing of "bank notes, stamped paper, credit bills, postal stamps, bonds, stocks, and other watermarked paper."[29]
In 1916, U.S. Department of Agriculture chief scientists Lyster Hoxie Dewey and Jason L. Merrill created paper made from hemp pulp and concluded that paper from hemp hurds was "favorable in comparison with those used with pulp wood."[30][31] Modern research has not confirmed the positive finding about hemp hurds. They are only 32% and 38% cellulose.[32] On the other hand, hemp contains only 4-10% lignin against the 18-30% found in wood. This lignin must be removed chemically and wood requires more use of chemicals in the process.[33] The actual production of hemp fiber in the U.S continued to decline until 1933 to around 500 tons/year. Between 1934-35, the cultivation of hemp began to increase but still at a very low level and with no significant increase of paper from hemp.[34][35]
Contemporary
Hemp has never been used for commercial high-volume paper production due to its relatively high processing cost.[36] Currently there is a small niche market for hemp pulp, for example as cigarette paper.[37] Hemp fiber is mixed with fiber from other sources than hemp. In 1994 there was no significant production of 100% true hemp paper.[38] World hemp pulp production was believed to be around 120,000 tons per year in 1991 which was about 0.05% of the world's annual pulp production volume.[39] The total world production of hemp fiber had in 2003 declined to about 60,000 from 80,000 tons.[37] This can be compared to a typical pulp mill for wood fiber, which is never smaller than 250,000 tons per annum.[38][40] The cost of hemp pulp is approximately six times that of wood pulp,[39] mostly because of the small size and outdated equipment of the few hemp processing plants in the Western world, and because hemp is harvested once a year (during August)[citation needed] and needs to be stored to feed the mill the whole year through. This storage requires a lot of (mostly manual) handling of the bulky stalk bundles. Another issue is that the entire hemp plant cannot be economically prepared for paper production. While the wood products industry uses nearly 100% of the fiber from harvested trees, only about 25% of the dried hemp stem — the bark, called bast — contains the long, strong fibers desirable for paper production.[41] All this accounts for a high raw material cost. Hemp pulp is bleached with hydrogen peroxide, a process today also commonly used for wood pulp.
Market share
Around the year 2000, the production quantity of flax and hemp pulp total 25000-30000 tons per year, having been produced from approximately 37000-45000 tonnes fibers. Up to 80% of the produced pulp is used for specialty papers (including 95% of cigarette paper). Only about 20% hemp fiber input goes into the standard pulp area and are here mostly in lower quality (untreated oakum high shive content added) wood pulps. With hemp pulp alone, the proportion of specialty papers probably at about 99%. The market is considered saturated with little or no growth in this area.[42][43]
Jewelry
Main article: Hemp jewelry
Hemp and bead Jewelry
Hemp jewelry is the product of knotting hemp twine through the practice of macramé. Hemp jewelry includes bracelets, necklaces, anklets, rings, watches and other adornments. Some jewelry features beads made from glass, stone, wood and bones. The hemp twine varies in thickness and comes in a variety of colors. There are many different stitches used to create hemp jewelry, however, the half knot and full knot stitches are most common.
Cordage
Hemp rope
Hemp rope was used in the age of sailing ships, though the rope had to be protected by tarring, since hemp rope has a propensity for breaking from rot, as the capillary effect of the rope-woven fibers tended to hold liquid at the interior, while seeming dry from the outside.[44] Tarring was a labor-intensive process, and earned sailors the nickname "Jack Tar". Hemp rope was phased out when Manila, which does not require tarring, became widely available. Manila is sometimes referred to as Manila hemp, but is not related to hemp; it is abacá, a species of banana.
Animal bedding
Hemp straw animal bedding
Hemp shives are the core of the stem, hemp hurds are broken parts of the core. In the EU, they are used for animal bedding (horses, for instance), or for horticultural mulch.[45] Industrial hemp is much more profitable if both fibers and shives (or even seeds) can be used.
Water and soil purification
Hemp can be used as a "mop crop" to clear impurities out of wastewater, such as sewage effluent, excessive phosphorus from chicken litter, or other unwanted substances or chemicals. Eco-technologist Dr. Keith Bolton from Southern Cross University in Lismore, New South Wales, Australia, is a leading researcher in this area. Hemp is being used to clean contaminants at the Chernobyl nuclear disaster site. This is known as phytoremediation - the process of clearing radioisotopes as well as a variety of other toxins from the soil, water, and air.[46]
Weed control
Main article: Weed control § Organic methods
The dense growth of hemp helps kill weeds, even thistle.
Hemp, because of its height, dense foliage and its high planting density as a crop, is a very effective and long used method of killing tough weeds in farming by minimizing the pool of weed seeds of the soil.[47] Using hemp this way can help farmers avoid the use of herbicides, to help gain organic certification and to gain the benefits of crop rotation per se. Due to its rapid, dense growth characteristics, in some jurisdictions hemp is considered a prohibited noxious weed, much like Scotch Broom. It has been used extensively to kill weeds in agriculture.
Fuel
Biodiesel sample
Biofuels, such as biodiesel and alcohol fuel, can be made from the oils in hemp seeds and stalks, and the fermentation of the plant as a whole, respectively. Biodiesel produced from hemp is sometimes known as "hempoline".[48]
Filtered hemp oil can be used directly to only power diesel engines. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel invented the diesel engine, which he intended to fuel "by a variety of fuels, especially vegetable and seed oils, which earlier were used for oil lamps, i.e. the Argand lamp."[49][50][51]
Production of vehicle fuel from hemp is very small. Commercial biodiesel and biogas is typically produced from cereals, coconuts, palmseeds and cheaper raw materials like garbage, wastewater, dead plant and animal material, animal feces and kitchen waste.[52]
Cultivation
Hemp being harvested
Hemp is usually planted between March and May in the northern hemisphere, between September and November in the southern hemisphere.[53] It matures in about three to four months.
Millennia of selective breeding have resulted in varieties that look quite different. Also, breeding since circa 1930 has focused quite specifically on producing strains which would perform very poorly as sources of drug material. Hemp grown for fiber is planted closely, resulting in tall, slender plants with long fibers. "Until the early 1900s industrial hemp was a valuable crop used all over the world for its strong fibers and oil seeds. Today, however, the common perception of the industrial hemp plant is generally negative and associated with the drug marijuana. This perception is the legacy of a century of powerful influences constructing hemp as a dangerous drug, even though it is not a drug and it has the potential to be a profitable alternative crop. In the United States, the public's perception of hemp as marijuana has blocked hemp from becoming a useful crop and product,"[54] in spite of its vital importance prior to World War II.[55] Ideally, according to Britain's Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, the herb should be desiccated and harvested towards the end of flowering. This early cropping reduces the seed yield but improves the fiber yield and quality.[56] In these strains of industrial hemp the tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content would have been very low.[54]
The seeds are sown from mid April to mid May with grain drills to 4–6 cm sowing depth. Hemp needs less fertilizer than corn does. A total of 60–150 kg of nitrogen, 40–140 kg phosphorus (P2O5) and 75–200 kg of potassium [5] per acre for hemp fiber made before sowing and again later, maybe three to four weeks. When practiced, especially in France double use of fiber and seed fertilization with nitrogen doses up to 100 kg / ha rather low. Organic fertilizers such as manure can utilize industrial hemp well. Neither weeds nor crop protection measures are necessary.[54]
Cultivars
longitudinal section photo
Cannabis sativa stem
low-angle photo-shot
Hemp strains USO-xx and Zolotoniski-xx
A total of 46 varieties of hemp with low levels of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) are certified by the European Union (EU).[57] They have, unlike other types, a very high fiber content of 30-40%. In contrast to cannabis for medical use, varieties grown for fiber and seed have less than 0.2% THC and they are unsuitable for producing hashish and marijuana.[58] The most important cannabinoid in industrial hemp is cannabidiol (CBD) with a proportion of 1 to 5%.
black and white drawing: C. sativa tall, C. indica middle, C. ruderalis small
The variety of appearances for cannabis. Only C. sativa (left) is suited for industrial hemp, but it also has medicinal varieties.
Cannabis sativa L. subsp. sativa var. sativa is the variety grown for industrial use, while C. sativa subsp. indica generally has poor fiber quality and is primarily used for recreational and medicinal purposes. The major difference between the two types of plants is the appearance and the amount of ?9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) secreted in a resinous mixture by epidermal hairs called glandular trichomes, although they can also be distinguished genetically.[59] Oilseed and fiber varieties of Cannabis approved for industrial hemp production produce only minute amounts of this psychoactive drug, not enough for any physical or psychological effects. Typically, hemp contains below 0.3% THC, while cultivars of Cannabis grown for recreational use can contain anywhere from 2% to over 20%.[60]
Harvesting
Industrial hempseed harvesting machine in France.
Smallholder plots are usually harvested by hand. The plants are cut at 2 to 3 cm above the soil and left on the ground to dry. Mechanical harvesting is now common, using specially adapted cutter-binders or simpler cutters.
The cut hemp is laid in swathes to dry for up to four days. This was traditionally followed by retting, either water retting (the bundled hemp floats in water) or dew retting (the hemp remains on the ground and is affected by the moisture in dew, and by molds and bacterial action). Modern processes use steam and machinery to separate the fiber, a process known as thermomechanical pulping.
USO-xx and Zolotoniski-xx hemp strains 007.jpg
Récolte chanvre1.jpg
Saint-Flavy (Aube) culture du Chanvre.JPG
USO-xx and Zolotoniski-xx hemp strains 019.jpg
Location and crop rotation
Hemp maze in France
For profitable hemp farming, particularly deep, humus-rich, nutrient-rich soil with controlled water flow is preferable. Water logged acidic, compressed or extremely light (sandy) soils primarily affect the early development of plants.[citation needed] Steep slopes and high altitudes of more than 400 m above sea level are best avoided. Hemp is relatively insensitive to cold temperatures and can withstand frost down to -5 degrees C.[citation needed] Seeds can germinate down to 1-3 degrees.[citation needed] Hemp needs a lot of heat, so earlier varieties come to maturation. The water requirement is 300-500 l / kg dry matter.[citation needed] Up to 3 feet growing roots into the soil can also use water supplies from deeper soil layers. Worth noting is that the water requirement of hemp is at least 14 times lower than that of cotton which takes between 7 000-29 000 l/kg, according to WWF.[citation needed]
Hemp benefits crops grown after it. For this reason it is generally grown before winter cereals. Advantageous changes are high weed suppression, soil loosening by the large hemp root system and the positive effect on soil tilth. Since hemp is very self-compatible, it can also be grown several years in a row in the same fields (monoculture).
Diseases
Main article: List of hemp diseases
Hemp plants can be vulnerable to various pathogens, including bacteria, fungi, nematodes, viruses and other miscellaneous pathogens. Such diseases often lead to reduced fiber quality, stunted growth, and death of the plant. These diseases rarely affect the yield of a hemp field, so hemp production is not traditionally dependent on the use of pesticides.
Environmental impact
Hemp is considered by a 1998 study in Environmental Economics to be environmentally friendly due to a decrease of land use and other environmental impacts, indicating a possible decrease of ecological footprint in a US context compared to typical benchmarks.[61] A 2010 study, however, that compared the production of paper specifically from hemp and eucalyptus concluded that "industrial hemp presents higher environmental impacts than eucalyptus paper"; however, the article also highlights that "there is scope for improving industrial hemp paper production".[62] Hemp is also claimed to require few pesticides and no herbicides, and it has been called a carbon negative raw material.[63][64] Results indicate that high yield of hemp may require high total nutrient levels (field plus fertilizer nutrients) similar to a high yielding wheat crop.[65]
Producers
The world-leading producer of hemp is China, with smaller production in Europe, Chile and North Korea. Over thirty countries produce industrial hemp, including Australia, Austria, Canada, Chile, China, Denmark, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hungary, India, Italy, Japan, Korea, Netherlands, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, Turkey and Ukraine.[66][67]
The United Kingdom, and Germany resumed commercial production in the 1990s. British production is mostly used as bedding for horses; other uses are under development. Companies in Canada, the UK, the United States and Germany, among many others, process hemp seed into a growing range of food products and cosmetics; many traditional growing countries still continue to produce textile-grade fibre.
Dried hemp stalks displayed at the International Hemp Fair in Vienna
Air dry stem yields in Ontario have from 1998 and onward ranged from 2.6-14.0 tonnes of dry, retted stalks per hectare (1-5.5 t/ac) at 12% moisture. Yields in Kent County, have averaged 8.75 t/ha (3.5 t/ac). Northern Ontario crops averaged 6.1 t/ha (2.5 t/ac) in 1998. Statistic for the European Union for 2008 to 2010 say that the average yield of hemp straw has varied between 6.3 and 7.3 ton per ha.[68] Only a part of that is bast fiber. Approximately one tonne of bast fiber and 2-3 tonnes of core material can be decorticated from 3-4 tonnes of good quality, dry retted straw. For an annual yield of this level is it in Ontario recommended to add nitrogen (N):70–110 kg/ha, phosphate (P2O5): up to 80 kg/ha and potash (K2O): 40–90 kg/ha.[69] The average yield of dry hemp stalks in Europe was 6 ton/ha (2.4 ton/ac) in 2001 and 2002.[3]
FAO argue that an optimum yield of hemp fiber is more than 2 tonnes per ha, while average yields are around 650 kg/ha.[70]
Australia
In the Australian states of Tasmania, Victoria, Queensland and, most recently, New South Wales, the state governments have issued licences to grow hemp for industrial use. The state of Tasmania pioneered the licensing of hemp in 1990.[citation needed] The state of Victoria was an early adopter in 1998, and has reissued the regulation in 2008.[71]
Hemp production in tonnes 2003–2004
FAOSTAT (FAO)
China 23000 79 % 24000 79 %
France 4300 15 % 4300 14 %
Chile 1250 4 % 1250 4 %
Russia 200 1 % 300 1 %
Turkey 150 1 % 150 < 1%
Ukraine 150 1 % 150 < 1%
Romania 100 < 1 % 100 < 1%
Hungary 40 < 1 % 40 < 1%
Poland 15 < 1 % 15 < 1%
Spain 8 < 1 % 8 < 1%
Serbia 2 < 1 % 2 < 1%
Total 29215 100 % 30315 100 %
Queensland has allowed industrial production under licence since 2002,[72] where the issuance is controlled under the Drugs Misuse Act 1986.[73] Most recently, New South Wales now issues licences[74] under a law, the Hemp Industry Regulations Act 2008 (No 58), that came into effect as of 6 November 2008.[75]
Canada
Commercial production (including cultivation) of industrial hemp has been permitted in Canada since 1998 under licenses and authorization issued by Health Canada (9,725 ha in 2004, 5450 ha in 2009).[76][77] It is expected that hemp will contribute $100 million to Canada's economy.[78]
France
Industrial hemp production in France
France is Europe's biggest producer with 8,000 hectares cultivated. 70-80% of the hemp fibre produced in Europe in 2003 was used for specialty pulp for cigarette papers and technical applications. About 15% is used in the automotive sector and 5-6% were used for insulation mats. Approximately 95% of hurds were used as animal bedding, while almost 5% were used in the building sector.[3] In 2010/2011, a total of 11 000 ha was cultivated with hemp in the EU, a decline compared with previous year.[68][79]
Russia
[icon] This section requires expansion. (August 2012)
Russian hemp
Hemp seed warehouse (Russia)
Some Russian speaking people have created a web site on topics related to growing cannabis.[80]
United Kingdom
A hemp crop in Peasenhall Road, Walpole, Suffolk, UK
In the United Kingdom, cultivation licences are issued by the Home Office under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971. When grown for non-drug purposes, hemp is referred to as industrial hemp, and a common product is fibre for use in a wide variety of products, as well as the seed for nutritional aspects and for the oil. Feral hemp or ditch weed is usually a naturalized fibre or oilseed strain of Cannabis that has escaped from cultivation and is self-seeding.
United States
A display about the uses of Hemp in the Chicago Field Museum
Hemp is not legal to grow in the U.S. under Federal law because of its relation to marijuana, and any imported hemp products must meet a zero tolerance level. It is considered a controlled substance under the Controlled Substances Act (P.L. 91-513; 21 U.S.C. 801 et seq.). Some states have made the cultivation of industrial hemp legal, but farmers in North Dakota, Hawaii, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Oregon, California, Montana, West Virginia and Vermont have not yet begun to grow it because of resistance from the federal Drug Enforcement Administration. In 2013, after the legalization of marijuana in the state, several farmers in Colorado planted and harvested several acres of hemp, bringing in the first hemp crop in the United States in over half a century.[81] Colorado,[82] Vermont, California, and North Dakota have passed laws enabling hemp licensure. All four states are waiting for permission to grow hemp from the DEA. Currently,[83] North Dakota representatives are pursuing legal measures to force DEA approval.[84] Oregon has licensed industrial hemp as of August 2009.[85] In February 2014, Congress passed an agriculture bill that eased restrictions on cultivation in 10 states.[86]
History
Yangshao culture (ca. 4800 BCE) amphora with impressed hemp cord design
Radical 200 (? or má), the Chinese character for hemp, depicts two plants under a shelter. The use of hemp in Taiwan dates back at least 10,000 years.[87]
Cannabis sativa from Vienna Dioscurides, 512 A.D.
Hemp is one of the earliest domesticated plants known.[88] It has been cultivated by many civilizations for over 12,000 years.[89][90] Hemp use archaeologically dates back to the Neolithic Age in China, with hemp fiber imprints found on Yangshao culture pottery dating from the 5th millennium BC.[87][91] The Chinese later used hemp to make clothes, shoes, ropes, and an early form of paper.[87] The classical Greek historian Herodotus (ca. 480 BC) reported that the inhabitants of Scythia would often inhale the vapors of hemp-seed smoke, both as ritual and for their own pleasurable recreation.[92]
Textile expert Elizabeth Wayland Barber summarizes the historical evidence that Cannabis sativa, "grew and was known in the Neolithic period all across the northern latitudes, from Europe (Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Romania, Ukraine) to East Asia (Tibet and China)," but, "textile use of Cannabis sativa does not surface for certain in the West until relatively late, namely the Iron Age."[93] "I strongly suspect, however, that what catapulted hemp to sudden fame and fortune as a cultigen and caused it to spread rapidly westwards in the first millennium B.C. was the spread of the habit of pot-smoking from somewhere in south-central Asia, where the drug-bearing variety of the plant originally occurred. The linguistic evidence strongly supports this theory, both as to time and direction of spread and as to cause."[94]
Jews living in Palestine in the 2nd century were familiar with the cultivation of hemp, as witnessed by a reference to it in the Mishna (Kil'ayim 2:5) as a variety of plant, along with Arum, that sometimes takes as many as three years to grow from a seedling. In late medieval Germany and Italy, hemp was employed in cooked dishes, as filling in pies and tortes, or boiled in a soup.[95] Hemp in later Europe was mainly cultivated for its fibers, and was used for ropes on many ships, including those of Christopher Columbus. The use of hemp as a cloth was centered largely in the countryside, with higher quality textiles being available in the towns.
The Spaniards brought hemp to the Western Hemisphere and cultivated it in Chile starting about 1545.[96] However, in May 1607, "hempe" was among the crops Gabriel Archer observed being cultivated by the natives at the main Powhatan village, where Richmond, Virginia is now situated;[97] and in 1613, Samuell Argall reported wild hemp "better than that in England" growing along the shores of the upper Potomac. As early as 1619, the first Virginia House of Burgesses passed an Act requiring all planters in Virginia to sow "both English and Indian" hemp on their plantations.[98] The Puritans are first known to have cultivated hemp in New England in 1645.[96]
United States "Marihuana" production permit. In the United States, hemp cultivation is legally prohibited, but during World War II farmers were encouraged to grow hemp for cordage, to replace Manila hemp previously obtained from Japanese-controlled areas. The U.S. government produced a film explaining the uses of hemp, called Hemp for Victory.
George Washington pushed for the growth of hemp and even grew hemp himself, as it was a cash crop commonly used to make rope and fabric. In May 1765 he noted in his diary about the sowing of seeds each day until mid-April. Then he recounts the harvest in October which he grew 27 bushels that year.
There is some speculation that George Washington smoked the flower of the cannabis plant in order to achieve a recreational high,[55] but there is no evidence in any of his writings that he grew hemp for anything other than industrial purposes. It is sometimes supposed that an excerpt from Washington's diary, which reads "Began to seperate the Male from the Female hemp at Do.&—rather too late" is evidence that he was trying to grow female plants for the THC found in the flowers. However, the editorial remark accompanying the diary states that "This may arise from their [the male] being coarser, and the stalks larger" [99] In subsequent days, he describes soaking the hemp[100] (to make the fibers usable) and harvesting the seeds,[101] suggesting that he was growing hemp for industrial purposes, not recreational.
George Washington also imported the Indian Hemp plant from Asia, which was used for fiber and, by some growers, for intoxicating resin production. In a letter to William Pearce who managed the plants for him Washington says, "What was done with the Indian Hemp plant from last summer? It ought, all of it, to be sown again; that not only a stock of seed sufficient for my own purposes might have been raised, but to have disseminated seed to others; as it is more valuable than common hemp."[citation needed]
Additional presidents known to have farmed hemp include Thomas Jefferson,[102] James Madison, James Monroe, Andrew Jackson, Zachary Taylor, and Franklin Pierce. [103]
Historically, hemp production had made up a significant portion of antebellum Kentucky's economy. Before the American Civil War, many slaves worked on plantations producing hemp.[104]
In 1937, the Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 was passed in the United States. It levied a tax on anyone who dealt commercially in cannabis, hemp, or marijuana. The reasons that hemp was also included in this law are disputed—several scholars have claimed that the Act was passed in order to destroy the US hemp industry,[105][106][107] with the primary involvement of businessmen Andrew Mellon, Randolph Hearst, and the Du Pont family.[105][107]
One claim is that Hearst believed that his extensive timber holdings were threatened by the invention of the decorticator, which he feared would allow hemp to become a very cheap substitute for the paper pulp that was used in the newspaper industry.[105][108] Modern science suggests that this fear would have been unfounded. Improvements of the decorticators in the 1930s, machines that separate the fibers from the hemp stem, could not make hemp fiber a very cheap substitute for fibers from other sources due to the fact that the long strong fibers are only found in the bast, the outer part of the stem. Only about 1/3 of the stem are long and strong fibers.[32][105][109]
Another claim is that Mellon, Secretary of the Treasury and the wealthiest man in America at that time, had invested heavily in DuPont's new synthetic fiber, nylon, and believed that the replacement of the traditional resource, hemp, was integral to the new product's success.[105][110][111][112][113][114][115][116]
The Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 was ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in a unanimous verdict decided in Leary v. United States, and ultimately superseded by the Controlled Substances Act of 1970.
Hemp was used extensively by the United States during World War II. Uniforms, canvas, and rope were among the main textiles created from the hemp plant at this time.[117] Much of the hemp used was cultivated in Kentucky and the Midwest. During World War II, the U.S. produced a short 1942 film, Hemp for Victory, promoting hemp as a necessary crop to win the war.
Historical cultivation
Suitable climate zones for hemp cultivation
Hemp has been grown for millennia in Asia and the Middle East for its fibre. Commercial production of hemp in the West took off in the eighteenth century, but was grown in the sixteenth century in eastern England.[118] Because of colonial and naval expansion of the era, economies needed large quantities of hemp for rope and oakum. Other important producing countries were China, North Korea, Hungary, the former Yugoslavia, Romania, Poland, France and Italy.
In Western Europe, the cultivation of hemp was not legally banned by the 1930s, but the commercial cultivation stopped by then, due to decreased demand compared to increasingly popular artificial fibres.[119] Theories about the potential for commercial cultivation of hemp in very large quantities have been strongly criticized by European experts on Hemp such as Dr. Hayo M.G. van der Werf and Dr. Ivan Bûcsa. From their perspective hemp was, outside the U.S, simply out-competed by other fibers in most applications.[32][109]
Soviet Union
Harvesting hemp in the USSR, 1956
From the 1950s to the 1980s, the Soviet Union was the world's largest producer (3,000 km² in 1970). The main production areas were in Ukraine,[120] the Kursk and Orel regions of Russia, and near the Polish border. Since its inception in 1931, the Hemp Breeding Department at the Institute of Bast Crops in Hlukhiv (Glukhov), Ukraine, has been one of the world's largest centers for developing new hemp varieties, focusing on improving fiber quality, per-hectare yields, and low THC content.[121][122]
Japan
Japanese Shinto shrine with rope made of hemp
In Japan, hemp was historically used as paper and a fiber crop. There is archaeological evidence cannabis was used for clothing and the seeds were eaten in Japan back to the Jomon period (10,000 to 300 BCE). Many Kimono designs portray hemp, or asa (Japanese: ?), as a beautiful plant. In 1948, marijuana was restricted as a narcotic drug. The ban on marijuana imposed by the United States authorities was alien to Japanese culture, as the drug had never been widely used in Japan before. Though these laws against marijuana are some of the world's strictest, allowing five years imprisonment for possession of the drug, they exempt hemp growers, whose crop is used to make robes for Buddhist monks and loincloths for Sumo wrestlers. Because marijuana use in Japan has doubled in the past decade, these exemptions have recently been called into question.[123]
Portugal
The cultivation of hemp in Portuguese lands began around the fourteenth century onwards, it was raw material for the preparation of rope and plugs for the Portuguese ships. Colonies for factories for the production of flax hemp, such as the Royal Flax Hemp Factory in Brazil.
After the Restoration of Independence in 1640, in order to recover the ailing Portuguese naval fleet, were encouraged its cultivation as the Royal Decree of D. John IV in 1656. At that time its cultivation was carried out in Trás-os-Montes, Zone Tower Moncorvo, more precisely in Vilariça Valley, fertile land for any crop irrigation, and a very large area, flat and very fertile culture still wide until the last century grew up tobacco, a plant that needs a large space to expand and grow, the area lies in the valley of Serra de Bornes.
As of 1971, this cultivar is considered illegal because of marijuana, a decision subsequently revoked by the European Union.[citation needed][clarification needed]
See also
Cannabis flower essential oil
Fiber rope
Hemp for Victory (film)
Hemp Industries Association
Hempcrete
International Year of Natural Fibres
Natural fibre
Plant textiles
The Emperor Wears No Clothes (book)
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Gabriel Archer, A Relatyon of the Discoverie of Our River..., printed in Archaeologia Americana 1860, p. 44. William Strachey (1612) records a native (Powhatan) name for hemp (weihkippeis).
Proceedings of the Virginia Assembly, 1619, cf. the 1633 Act: Hening's Statutes at Large, p. 218
Diary of George Washington, entry 7 August 1765. url=http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/01-01-02-0011-0006-0004, accessdate=2014-06-03
Diary of George Washington, entry 22 August 1765. url=http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/01-01-02-0011-0006-0010, accessdate=2014-06-03
Diary of George Washington, entry September 1765. url=http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Washington/01-01-02-0011-0007, accessdate=2014-06-03
Bear, James A. Jr., and Lucia C. Stanton, eds. Jefferson's Memorandum Books: Accounts, with Legal Records and Miscellany, 1767-1826. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997, 1:383.
Robinson, Rowan. The Great Book of Hemp: The Complete Guide to the Environmental, Commercial, and Medicinal Uses of the World's Most Extraordinary Plant. Rochester, VT. Park Street Press, 2010. Chapter 5:129-135. Print
James F. Hopkins, "Slavery in the Hemp Industry", Drug Library
French, Laurence; Manzanárez, Magdaleno (2004). NAFTA & neocolonialism: comparative criminal, human & social justice. University Press of America. p. 129. ISBN 978-0-7618-2890-7.
Earlywine, 2005: p. 24
Peet, 2004: p. 55
Sterling Evans (2007). Bound in twine: the history and ecology of the henequen-wheat complex for Mexico and the American and Canadian Plains, 1880–1950. Texas A&M University Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-58544-596-7.
Dr. Ivan BÛcsa, GATE Agricultural Research Institute, Kompolt – Hungary, Book Review Re-discovery of the Crop Plant Cannabis Marihuana Hemp (Die Wiederentdeckung der Nutzplanze Cannabis Marihuana Hanf)[dead link]
Evans, Sterling, ed. (2006). The borderlands of the American and Canadian Wests: essays on regional history of the forty-ninth parallel. University of Nebraska Press. p. 199. ISBN 978-0-8032-1826-0.
Gerber, Rudolph Joseph (2004). Legalizing marijuana: drug policy reform and prohibition politics. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-275-97448-0.
Earleywine, Mitchell (2005). Understanding marijuana: a new look at the scientific evidence. Oxford University Press. p. 231. ISBN 978-0-19-518295-8.
Robinson, Matthew B & Scherlen, Renee G (2007). Lies, damned lies, and drug war statistics: a critical analysis of claims made by the office of National Drug Control Policy. SUNY Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-7914-6975-0.
Rowe, Thomas C (2006). Federal narcotics laws and the war on drugs: money down a rat hole. Psychology Press. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-7890-2808-2.
Sullivan, Larry E et al, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Law Enforcement: Federal. SAGE. p. 747. ISBN 978-0-7619-2649-8.
Lusane, Clarence (1991). Pipe dream blues: racism and the war on drugs. South End Press. pp. 37–8. ISBN 978-0-89608-410-0.
Plant Wizards Fight Wartime Drug Peril (September). 1943. pp. 62–63.
New Fossil Evidence for the Past Cultivation and Processing of Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) in Eastern England Author(s): R. H. W. Bradshaw, P. Coxon, J. R. A. Greig, A. R. Hall Source: New Phytologist, Vol. 89, No. 3 (Nov., 1981), pp. 503-510 Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the New Phytologist Trust Accessed: 06/07/2009
"Dr. Ivan BÛcsa, GATE Agricultural Research Institute, Kompolt - Hungary, Book Review Re-discovery of the Crop Plant Cannabis Marihuana Hemp (Die Wiederentdeckung der Nutzplanze Cannabis Marihuana Hanf)". Hempfood.com. Retrieved 2011-04-20.
"Hemp research and growing in Ukraine". Aginukraine.com. 2002-01-06. Retrieved 2011-04-20.
Hemp will help Ukraine to grow wealthy (Russian)
Interview with Dr. V. G. Virovets, the head of the Hemp Breeding Department at the Institute of Bast Crops (1998) (English)
Yuka Hayashi (2009-03-04). "In Drug-Leery Japan, Arrests for Marijuana Are on the Rise". Wall Street Journal.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hemp.
Look up hemp in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Hemp as an Agricultural Commodity Congressional Research Service
Industrial Hemp in the United States: Status and Market Potential (www.ers.usda.gov)
Wikisource-logo.svg "Hemp". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
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Cannabis
Cscr-featured.svg
Cannabis
Cannabis vulga
Taxinomia
Regnum: Plantae
Divisio: Magnoliophyta
Classis: Magnoliopsida
Ordo: Rosales
Familia: Cannabaceae
Genus: Cannabis
L.
Species
Cannabis sativa L.
Cannabis indica Lam.
Cannabis ruderalis Janisch.
Cannabis (-is, f.) vel rarius Cannabus[1] et Cannabum[2] est genus plantarum florentium, cuius omnes species descriptae, nempe Cannabis sativa[3] L.,[4] Cannabis indica Lam., Cannabis ruderalis Janisch.,[5] sunt in Asia Media endemicae. Multum differt inter doctos utrum genus in tres species dividi debeat, an variationes unius speciei putari.[6]
Modis in permultis et saepius dissimilibus homines per aeva cannabim usurpabant, papyrum, funes, vestimenta, et vela ex cannabis fibris facientes, et folia, flores, semina cibo coquentes. Etiam cannabim medicinae medicamentoque consumebant, quia insunt multa chemica, cannabinoides vocata, quorum nonnulla sicut cannabidiol adiuvant aegros, et nonnulla sunt psychotropica, sicut tetrahydrocannabinol, quod homines et nonnulla cetera animalia[7] inebriat.
Index
1 Philologia
2 Proprietates speciei
2.1 Reproductio
2.2 Agricultura
2.2.1 Romani
3 Usus per historiam
3.1 Textilia
3.2 Cibus
3.2.1 Antiquitate
3.2.2 Nostro aevo
3.3 Medicina
3.3.1 Antiquitate
3.3.2 Nostro aevo
3.4 Medicamentum
3.4.1 Effectus
3.4.2 Usus in litteris
4 Cannabis et lex
5 Cannabis et religio
6 Citationes
7 Vide etiam
8 Nexus externi
Philologia
Cannae plantae.
Cymbopogones plantae.
Acori plantae.
Cannabis plantae.
Rectus vocabuli cannabis fons est Graece: ????aß??, -???, f. (acc. ????aß??, vel ?a???ß?da), et parens nominis Graeci fuit Scythicus vel Thracicus,[8][9] sed fons primus incertius noscitur. Sunt multae sententiae propositae, sed re vera est Wanderwort, cuius de originibus nescimus.
Primo aspectu radix verbi esse videatur canna, sicut scripsit Isidorus: "Cannabum [sic] a similitudine cannae vocatum, sive a Graeca etymologia; nam illi cannabum ????aß?? vocant."[2] Ergo, nonnulli fontem verbi cannabis proposuerunt esse Hebraicum vocabulum ????? ??????? qeneh bosem, id est canna aromatica.[9] Hi glottologi legunt Exodum 30:23 veteris testamenti:
???-????, ?????????? ?????, ???-??????? ?????? ??????, ??????????-??????? ?????????? ?????????? ??????????; ???????-??????, ?????????? ??????????. ??????????
Dicens sume tibi aromata prima et zmyrnae electae quingentos siclos et cinnamomi medium id est ducentos quinquaginta calami' similiter ducentos quinquaginta.
– Moses, Exodus 30:23
– convertit Hieronymus
Vulgius credunt qeneh bosem esse calamum, vel cymbopogon, vel acorum.[10]
Immo contra, Raphael Mechoulam, cum Devanae, Breuer, et Zahalka, apud Universitatem Hebraicam Hierosolymae proponunt verbum Sanscriticum bhanga[11] ? Persicum bang ? Hebraicum pannag ? Syriacum qunnappa[12] ? Arabicum kunnab ? Graecum k???aß??. Credunt ei pannag, apud Prophetiam Ezekieleml 27:17, esse cannabim.[13]
???????? ??????? ??????????, ?????? ??????????; ????????? ??????? ???????? ???????? ????????, ???????, ???????, ??????????
Iuda et terra Israhel ipsi institores tui in frumento primo balsamum et mel et oleum et resinam proposuerunt in nundinis tuis.
– Ezekiel, Ezekiel 37:17
– convertit Hieronymus
Proprietates speciei
Folia cannabis
Cannabis est herba florifera, cuius folia sunt serrata, pariens inter 5–13 foliis per ramiculum, et omnia folia sunt paria. Masculini flora staminata, pistillata autem feminae pariunt. Feminarum flora denique fructa et semina fiunt. Ab initio, censebant quam fructum parit esse masculinum, et nudum esse femininam.[14]
Psychotropica cannabinoiedes, terpenoiedes, et aliae moleculae volatiles ex glandularibus trichomibus, quae tam copiose crescunt in calycibus et bracteis[15] plantarum feminarum.[16]
Reproductio
Cannabis sativae semina.
Ex cannabis femininae floribus trichomes eminent.
Masculinae plantae pollenis saculi.
Scimus Sinicos antiquos duo cannabis genera notavisse, et in Er Ya, primo dictionario Sinico, agriculturam circiter 200 a.E.V. explicanti, legimus ubi scribitur: "Cannabis masculinus appellatur xi ma (??), femina ju ma (??)."[17]
Omnium notorum generum cannabis pollen per ventum vectatur,[18] pariuntque semina, quae rectius achenes vocantur.[19]
Solet esse dioecia,[18][20] ergo masculini cum staminibus et feminae cum pistillis in harundinibus separatis crescunt,[21][22] sed multae varietates monoeciae descriptae sunt.[23]
Saepe subdioeciter (ubi monoeciae et dioeciae plantae in ista multitudine crescunt) cannabis crescit.[24][25][26] Plantae nonnumquam videntur esse labiles—quod significat interdum, si est opus, plantas sexualitate mutari.[27][28][29]
Agricultura
Agri cannabis coluntur ad fabricandum in Francogallia.
Machina ad seminum messem cannabiorum colligendam.
Solet cannabis seri inter Martium et Maium in hemisphaera boreali, scilicet inter Septembrem et Novembrem in australi.[30] Maturat post tres vel quattuor menses.
Romani
Multa opera a Romanis de agricultura scripta cannabis usus et modos colendi notant. Plinius dicit cannabim serendam esse a favonio, quod valet idem ac initium zephyri adflantis et veris ipsius.[31] Ut Varro plane descripsit,[32] id est 7 Februarii.
Columella circa 50 taxinomiam cannabis describere conatus est, et eius ordinem optimum esse ad pecus nutriendum.
2.7 Leguminum[33] genera cum sint complura, maxime grata et in usu hominum videntur faba, lenticula, phaselus, cicer, cannabis, milium, panicum, sesama, lupinum, linum etiam, et ordeum, quia ex eo ptisana est. Item pabulorum optima sunt medica et foenum Graecum, nec minus vicia. Proxime deinde cicera et ervum et farrago, quae est ex ordeo.
2.10 Cannabis solum pingue stercoratumque et riguum vel planum atque humidum et alte subactum deposcit.[34]
– Columella, De Re Rustica
Palladius circa 350 quando anni cannabim esse serendum dixit.
3.5 De serendo cannabo: Hoc mense ultimo cannabum seris terra pingui, stercorata, rigua uel plana atque umida et altius subacta. In uno pede quadrato sex eiusdem seminis grana ponuntur.<
4.5 De cannabo: Hoc etiam mense cannabum serimus usque in aequinoctium vernum hac ratione, qua in februario disputatum est.[1]
– Palladius, Opus Agriculturae
Usus per historiam
Ab aevo neolithico homines cannabe utebantur. Inventa sunt semina ustulata in sepulcris Romanianis, quae circa 8000a.E.V. esse usta credunt.[35] Omnes autem culturae populique cannabim non eodem modo adhibebant, licet fere omnes in medicinam et in textilia facienda cannabim sciebant. Ratio variarum sapientiarum est multiplex:[36]
Modi diversi agriculturae cannabim diversum pariunt.
Parva cum copia lucis solis densitateque plantarum satarum, cannabis crescit celeriter, sicut boscus. Magna, autem, longa sicut harundo. Terra etiam qualitatem cannabis contingit.
Potestas psychotropici altitudini qua cannabis colitur pendet: altius, fortior!
Leges et mores usum medicamenti saepe prohibebant. Semper non eget populus novo medicamento, eis quae etiam in usu sunt sicut alcohole et tabaco sufficientibus.
Etiam omnis cultura non eget novo fonte ciborum. Multi, sicut Mao Zedong in Sinis inter annos 1958-1960, cannabim cibo petebant, cibis solitis per fames vastatis.
Textilia
Fibrae cannabis et harundo.
Caulis et fibrae cannabis, mesa appellatae, interiores.
Tabula aedificilis ex cannabi pressa.
Later ex cannabi calceque factus.
Papyrus cannabia ex sepulchro Wu Di, imperatoris in dynastia Han, circiter 85 a.e.v.
Saccus cannabius sicut forsan Varro finctus esset.
Funis cannabius sicut proposuit Plinius.
Cannabis plantae certe ad arboris poroceritatem.
Circa 440 a.E.V. apud Herodotum, Scythii cannabi uti dicuntur ad vestimenta facienda. Similis est cannabis lino, sed certe superior:
(IV.74) "?st? d? sf? ????aß?? f??µ??? ?? t? ???? p??? pa??t?t?? ?a? µe???e?? t? ???? ?µfe?est?t?• ta?t? d? p???? ?pe?f??e? ? ????aß??• a?t? ?a? a?t?µ?t? ?a? spe???µ??? f?eta?. ?a? ?? a?t?? T????e? µ?? ?a? e?µata p??e??ta? t??s? ??????s? ?µ???tata• ??d’ ??, ?st?? µ? ???ta t??ß?? e?? a?t??, d?a????? ????? ? ?a???ß??? ?st?• ?? d? µ? e?d? ?? t?? ?a??aß?da, ???e?? d???se? e??a? t? e?µa.[37] (IV.74)"Cannabis eis (sc. Scythis) in terra eorum crescit praeter crebritatem atque magnitudinem valde similis lini; quamobrem cannabis multo superat. Ea et sua sponte et sata augetur. Ex ea autem Thraces sibi etiam vestimenta linis simillima faciunt. Si quis ea vehementer non abraderet, utrum linum an cannabis sit non cerneret. Qui cannabim non novit, id lineum esse putabit."
– Herodotus, Historiae
Textus ex pyramidibus plantas quibus rudentes facerent appellant šmšm.t.[38][39] Fibrae cannabis in sepulchris Akhenaten (Amenophis IV, domus XVIII, circiter 1335 a.e.v) et cannabis pollen inventum est in mumia Ramesei II (domus XIX, circiter 1213 a.e.v).[40]
M17 G43 V13
S24 N35 <1
E34
N35 M17 S29
2> D36
N29 G1 V1 V1 V1 N37 G17 N37 G17 X1 M2
Translitteratio ?w ??z.n (Wn?s)| cq?.w šmšm.t [38]
Latine
Nodavit Onnos rudentes cannabis.
– Fragmenta hieroglyphica, De muro pyramidis
– convertit Iustinus
Varro, circa 50 a.E.V., descripsit quae possit lector facere ex fibris cannabis vietis, sicut corbas, dolia, vel fiscinas.
I.22 De reliquo instrumento muto, in quo sunt corbulae, dolia, sic alia, haec praecipienda. Quae nasci in fundo ac fieri a domesticis poterunt, eorum nequid ematur, ut fere sunt quae ex viminibus et materia rustica fiunt, ut corbes, fiscinae, tribula, valli, rastelli; sic quae fiunt de cannabi, lino, iunco, palma, scirpo, ut funes, restes, tegetes.
I.23 Et alio loco virgulta serenda, ut habeas vimina, unde viendo quid facias, ut sirpeas, vallus, crates; alio loco ut seras ac colas silvam caeduam, alio ubi aucupere, sic ubi cannabim, linum, iuncum, spartum, unde nectas bubus soleas, lineas, restis, funes.
– Varro, De agri cultura, 1.22 et 1.23
Plinius dicit funes qui adhibentur ad usus marinos optime sparto factos, immo aqua absente cannabios meliores. Monet fibras harundinis interiores optimas, exteriores peiores. Affirmat quoque interdeum caules cannabis ad arborum proceritatem crescentes.
(XIX.8) Hoc autem tunditur, ut fiat utile, praecipue in aquis marique invictum. in sicco praeferunt e cannabi funes, sed spartum alitur etiam demersum, veluti natalium sitim pensans. Est quidem eius natura interpolis, rursusque quam libeat vetustum novo miscetur.
(XIX.56) Deinde utilissima funibus cannabis. seritur a favonio; quo densior est, eo tenerior. Semen eius, cum est maturum, ab aequinoctio autumni destringitur et sole aut vento aut fumo siccatur. Ipsa cannabis vellitur post vindemiam ac lucubrationibus decorticata purgatur. Optima Alabandica, plagarum praecipue usibus. Tria eius ibi genera: inprobatur cortici proximum aut medullae; laudatissima est e medio quae mesa vocatur. Secunda Mylasea. Quod ad proceritatem quidem attinet, Rosea agri Sabini arborum altitudinem aequat.
– Plinius, Naturalis historia
Grattius notat quoque optimam cannabim Alabandicam esse, praecipue ad retes venaticos texendos:
(46) at pauper rigui custos Alabandius horti
(47) cannabinas nutrit silvas, quam commoda nostro
(48) armamenta operi.
– Grattius, Cynegeticon
1500 annos serius Bartholomaeus Platina quoque de cannabi Alabandica scripsit, sed fere certum est eum legisse Plinium:
7.18(4): De Cannabi
Vellitur et cannabis ipsa, ut linum. Decorticata post vindemiam funes ad usum praestat. Aiunt cannabin in Alabandica ferularum vicem in plagarum usum praebere, adeo magna in regione nascitur. Ex semine cannabis tunso cibaria quaedam fiunt, quae et stomacho et capiti ac denique membris omnibus plurimum nocent.
– Bartholomaeus Platina, De honesta voluptate et valetudine
Etiam lege subter, ubi Platina loquitur de cibo cannabio.
Cibus
Cruda cannabis semina.
Semina cannabina glupta et cocta.
Plus cocta.
Cannabis duabus rationibus consumitur: vel semina omnino alibilia cibo vel flores nullo modo alibiles psychotropico eduntur.
In seminibus continentur omnia acida aminica et acida adiposa hominibus necessaria.[41] Semina eduntur cruda, cocta, contrita, fricta, pressa in lac, pressa in oleum, infusa in theam. Etsi non habent materiam alibilem, folia nonnumquam eduntur in acetariis.
Pondus seminis est circiter 30% oleo, 20% proteino, 50% amylo compositum. Semina integra, id est cum teguminibus, etiam sunt fons calcii, cupri, ferri, mangani, magnesii, phosphori, et zinci.[42]
Antiquitate
Fere omnes loci classici de usu seminum tantum tractant.
Ephippus, circa 250 a.E.V., dat iucundum praeceptum promulsidum mixtarum:
Ex fabula ???O? :
Meineke:
?a? µet? de?p??? ?????? * *
???ß????? * * * ??aµ??,
???d???, t????,
µ???, s?saµ?de?, ß?????, ß???µ??,
µ????, p??aµ?de?, µ????, ??????, (5)
???a, ?a??aß?de?, ????a?, ?????,
???? ????fa???.[43]
Latine:
Et post coenam coccus[44],
cicer, faba,
alica, caseus,
mel, sesamides, ..., ...,
...[45], pyramides, mala, nux,
lac, cannabides, conchae, sucus,
Iovis cerebrum[46].
– Ephippus, Cydon
– convertit Schweighaeuser[47]
Plinius circa 55 docuit quomodo siccare semina ad ea edenda:
xix. lvi. 173 semen eius, cum est maturum, ab aequinoctio autumni destringitur et sole aut vento aut fumo siccatur. ipsa cannabis vellitur post vindemiam ac lucubrationibus decorticata purgatur.
– Plinius, Historia naturalis
Galenus circa 175 notat nonnullos frigere semina:
?e?? ?a???ße?? ?p??µat??.
??? ??pe? a?t? t? f?t?? t?? ?a???ße?? ????e p?? t? ????, ?a? t? ?p??µa t? ?p??µat? pa?ap?????? p?? ??t? t?? d??aµ??, ???’ ?p??e?????e p?µp???, d??pept?? te ?a? ?a???t?µa??? ?? ?a? ?efa?a???? ?a? ?a????µ??. ?µ?? d’ ??? ?a? t??t? t??e? ???????? f?????te? ?µa t??? ?????? t?a??µa???. ???µ??? d? d?????t? t?a??µata t? pa?? t? de?p??? ?????µe?a t?? ?p? t? p??e?? ?d???? ??e?a. ?e?µa??e? d’ ??a??? ?a? d?? t??t? ?a? ?efa??? ?pteta? ß?a?e? p?e??? ??f???, ?tµ?? ??ap?µp?? ?p’ a?t?? ?e?µ?? ?’ ?µa ?a? fa?µa??d?.[48]
De Cannabis semine.
Non quemadmodum planta ipsa cannabis vitici quodammodo est similis, ita semen semini facultate est simile, sed plurimum ab eo dissidet, ut quod concoctu sit difficile, stomachoque, ac capiti noceat, parvique sit succi. Sunt tamen qui eo quoque frixo cum aliis tragematibus vescantur: tragemata autem voco ea, quae post coenam, voluptatis inter bibendum excitandae gratia, manduntur. Multum calefacit, ideoque sumptum Paulo largius, caput ferit, vaporem sursum ad ipsum mittens calidum simul, ac medicamentosum.[49]
– Galenus, De alimentorum facultatibus
– convertit Martinus Gregorius
Nostro aevo
[ ? Monstrare ]
Praecepta cannabia Platinae
Butyrum cannabi infusum.
Multi cannabii cibi Amstelodami venales.
Taberna in India, ubi bhang bibi potest. Annuntatio ad dexteram legitur "Intra fruereque! Taberna bhang a gubernatione approbata."
Cerevisia ex cannabi braciata.
Platina 1474 vel 1475 scripsit suum De Honesta Voluptate et Valitudine, quem potes leger super monstrare in formula imprimiens, in quo nonnulla praecepta cannabina includuntur.
Potius his in diebus non semina sed flores ipsae consumuntur sane ad elementa psychotropica fruenda. Saepius flores infuduntur adipidibus alcoholibusve, ut cannabinoeides solvantur. Deinde his cum adipibus vel alcoholibus mensae coquutur.
Fortis saporis cannabis causa hic modus usurpatur in praeceptis quibus fortia condimenta sicut exempli gratia laurus vel origanum vel thymus usurpari solent. Alia ratione sapor saccharo supprimitur, sicut in imagine fenestrae offarum dulciumque plenissimae ad dexteram.
Hic usus cannabis nullo modo est tantum hodiernus, immo exempli gratia in India fere 3000 annos bibunt potionem bhang e foliis cannabis contritis, lacte, butyro deliquato, et condimentis concoctam.[50]
Medicina
Antiquitate
Papyrus Ramassei III, col. 26:
V31
X1 F48
X1
Z1 Z1 Z1 N33 U1
X1 X1 M2 N37
G17 N37
G17 X1 M2
Z2 N29
N35 N29
N35 Z9 A55 N35 D26 N4 M17 D36
N35
N35
N35 D4
D4 N35
O34 A1 M17 G17 N14 G1 F35 N5
Z7 Z4
K.t phr.t: m?t.t šmšm.t qnqn, sdr n ??d.t, ?c ?r.ty n=s ?m dw?y
Alia praecepta: apium, cannabin obtere, requiescat in rore, lava oculos in ea bene mane
Apud Assyrios, cannabis pro multis malis corporis praescribentur.[51]
Ad depressionem: cum mesembryanthemo cannabin misce, lava totum aegrum
Ad oculos malos: ungue oculum cannabe cum oeleo iuniperi
Ad menstura vitanda cum mentha et croco in cervisia
Ad neuralgiam, tussiones, tetanum, et hydrophobiam
Ad sedativum, et anodynum, et menorrhagiam, et dysmenorrhoeam
At tumores detumescendos, enemate cannabe tamariscoque in oleo porci
Plinius praecepta ad vermiculos ex auribus eiciendos dat. Cannabin a dolores capitis domandos et nonnullos morbos curandos praescribit. Etiam monuit, ne usu cannabis viri suam genituruam perdeant.
xx. 97.258 sucus ex eo vermiculos aurium et quodcumque animal intraverit eicit, sed cum dolore capitis, tantaque vis ei est, ut aquae infusus coagulare eam dicatur; et ideo iumentorum alvo succurrit potus in aqua. radix articulos contractos emollit in aqua cocta, item podagras et similes impetus. ambustis cruda inlinitur, sed saepius mutatur, priusquam arescat.
xx. 97.259 Cannabis in silvis primum nata est, nigrior foliis et asperior. semen eius extinguere genituram virorum dicitur.
– Plinius, Historia naturalis
Nostro aevo
Lagoena cannabis extractorum antiqua.
Hodie multum differt inter doctos quam utilem medicinae cannabim esse, sed fere est consensus cannabim symptomata nauseae, vomitus, et inopiae appetentiae cibi allevare.[52]
Sicca caudicula floris Cannabis sativae.
Fistula et cannabis.
Medicamentum
Sigarella manu conversa cannabe impleta.
Fasciculus:Bong in use.oggPlay media
Vir fistula aquali utens.
Plurimi sine dubio, ut fruantur effectu psychotropico, cannabim adhibent. Insunt nonnulla psychotropica, sed praestat longe copia potentiaque THC (tetrahydrocannabinol), cuius ut effectus sentiantur, 10 µg per kg corporis concoquenda sunt.[53]
Sunt multi ingestationis modi, sed solitissimus fortasse est fumare flores gemmasque siccas, et etiam huic modo sunt variationes. Sicut dextrorsum depingitur, flores siccae conterantur et in sigarellis complicentur. Fortasse etiam e fistula vel calice flores integras vel sectas fument. Nonnumquam fistula est aquaria, et fumus per aquam in bullis percolatur. Resina fieri potest e trichromibus. Thea et aliae potiones infundantur e cannabi et aqua, vel lacte, vel alcohole. Suasum est infundere cannabim in aqua abusum cannabis esse, quia male per aquam THC diluitur. Modo 2.8 g/L dilui possunt.[54]. Potius dissolubilis adipibus et solventibus organicis, sicut butanio et hexanio, sane etiam in alcohole. Nonnumquam potio e cannabe alcoholeque claro infusa appellatur "draco viridis." Cannabis cocta quoque comedi potest.
Effectus
?9-tetrahydrocannabinol
thumbTetrahydrocannabivarin
Cannabidiol
Cannabinol
Cannabivarin
Cannabidivarin
Hi sunt nonnulli cannabis effectus in homines, vel fumata vel essa.[55]
Boni Neutri Mali
euphoria
risus
relaxatio, tensionis reductio
cogitatio plus philosophica vel creativa; sententiae facilius fluunt
melior vel gravior musicae aestimatio
maior sensibus naturalibus conscientia
musculi relaxati
ad dolores, sicut cephalgiam vel spasmos valescendos
reductio nauseae
laetitia ex odiosis rebus
mutatio conscientiae generalis (sicut cum omnibus psychotropicis)
plus appetentiae
tarditas motuum cogitationumque
mutatio visionis (colores candidiores fortasse videntur)
lethargia
siccitas lacrimarum et oris
memoriae linea interrupta
memoria brevis vastatur
cogitationes errantes
nausea, mixta cum aliis psychotropicis sicut alcohole, tabacum, et aliis fortioribus
sanguinolentia oculorum
tussis, asthma, et aliae difficultates respirationis
pulsus cordis elevatus
anxietas quibus nuper frui inceperunt
cephalgia
vertigo, aporia
languor vel collapsus
paranoia
vertigo et aporia
fortasse fit addictio psychica
inscitia et corporis coordinatio amissa
agitat condiciones psychicae quae etiam exstant
Usus in litteris
Cannabis messis, in forma litterae Sinicae ?.
Litterae Sinicae ?, "cannabis".
Res, praecipue medicae, scriptae ferunt psychotropicum cannabis usum diu notum esse. Antiquissimus usus notus est Sinarum
"That the stupefying effect of the hemp plant was commonly known from extremely early times is also indicated linguistically. The character ma (?) very early assumed two connotations. One meaning was, 'numerous or chaotic', derived from the nature of the plant's fibers. The second connotation was one of numbness or senselessness, apparently derived from the properties of the fruits and leaves which were used as infusions for medicinal purposes . . . as a character it ? combines with other characters to form such bisyllabic words as ma-tsui, narcotic (? and 'drunkenness'); ma-mu, numb (? and 'wood'); and ma-p'i, paralysis (? and 'rheumatism')."[56] "Cannabim soporare vulgo notum est ab aevo antiquissimo, etiam per rem linguisticam attestatur: littera ma (?) prisce sensus duos adsumpsit. Ille 'multum vel chaoticum', ob vultum fibrarum erratarum . Alter 'torpor vel corporis absentia sensus', ut patet derivatum ab proprietatibus fructorum foliarum quas adhibebant infuisis pro medicina . . . littera ? cum aliis litteris componi potest ad verba bisyllabica multa facienda sicut: ma-tsui, narcoticos (? et 'ebrietas'); ma-mu, torpidus (? et 'lignus'); et ma-p'i, paralysis (? et 'dolor artuum')."
– Hui-Lin Li, An archeological and historical account of Cannabis in China
– convertit Ioscius
In Materia Medica Sutra, circa 2000 a.e.v. scripta, distinctionem invenimus inter semina. Ma fen sunt semina mala; ma ze bona.[17]
Primo saeculo a.e.v., pharmacopoiea Pên-ts'ao Ching dixit: "Si nimis consumit, homo, daemonibus apparentibus se contorquebit sicut maniacus. At si per multum tempus accipiat, cum tenebris conloquatur, et corpus ipsud levius fiat."[56]
Saeculo secundo e.v., chirugista clarus Sinicus Hua T'o anaesthesiam coxit cannabe vinoque.[56]
Europaeis quoque antiquis usus cannabis medicamento notus est. Herodotus notavit Scythios fumum seminum haurire:
(75) ?a?t?? ?? ?? S???a? t?? ?a???ß??? t? sp??µa ?pe?? ??ß?s?, ?p?d????s? ?p? t??? p????? ?a? ?pe?ta ?p?ß?????s? t? sp??µa ?p? t??? d?afa??a? ?????? [t? p???]• t? d? ??µ??ta? ?p?ßa???µe??? ?a? ?tµ?da pa???eta? t?sa?t?? ?ste ???????? ??deµ?a ?? µ?? p???? ?p???at?se?e• ?? d? S???a? ???µe??? t? p???? ?????ta?. ???t? sf? ??t? ???t??? ?st?• ?? ??? d? ?????ta? ?dat? t? pa??pa? t? s?µa."[37] (75) Scythae, cum huius cannabis semen capiunt, in tabernaculum subeunt et semen in saxa candentia deponunt, quod tunc fumat et talem exhalationem praebet ut nullus ignis Graecus eam praecellat. Scythae autem mirantes vapore fremunt. Hoc eis pro lavando est, totum enim corpus aqua non lavant.
– Herodotus, Historiae
Dubium est num Herodotus hoc bene notaverit, quia elementa psychotropica seminibus desunt. Credendum est deinde Scythas flores, quae certe semina continent, incendisse.[36]
Hodie cannabis consumitur medicamento inter omnia quarto in usu, praeter tabacum, alcohol, et coffeum.[57]
Cannabis et lex
Hagae 23 Ianuarii 1912, Germania, Civitates Foederatae Americae, Francia, Britanniarum Regnum, Sina, Italia, Iaponia, Batavia, Persia, Lusitania, Russia, et Siam in primo civitatum conventu de opio foedus subscripserunt, quo usum et commercium opii vetarent; sed, inopiae causa scientiae peritorumque de cannabi et eius usu, cannabin ipsam non vetuerunt. Nihilominus praedixerunt id quod factum est anno 1928, quo secundum foedus pactum est.[58]
To prohibit the export of the resin obtained from Indian hemp and the ordinary preparations of which it forms the base . . . to countries which have prohibited their use, and, in cases where export is permitted, to require the production of a special import certificate issued by the government of the importing country, stating that the importation is approved for the purposes specified in the certificate and that the resin or preparations will not be re-exported.[59] Prohibere exportationem resinae e cannabi Indica extractae et concoctiones communes quarum ea est materia prima . . . in civitates quae earum usum interdicunt, et, ubi exportatio sinitur, requirere indicium praecipui documenti, a gubernatione civitatis importantis mandati, quod attestatur et importationem licitam esse et commercium adfirmatum esse ad rationes ac usus in documento definitos faciendos neque ullo modo iterum exportandum.
– Conventum gentium de opio II
– convertit Ioscius
Ab hoc conventu usque ad hodie, plurimae civitates vel legibus vel copiam illicitam portatu definiunt; nonnullis autem civitatibus exceptis, sicut Canada et Nederlandia, etiamsi leges stricto verbo possessionem interdicant, in actu lex non tollitur.
Cannabis et religio
Mumiae hominum qui esse magi monstrantur alia artificia circiter 3500 annos antiquae in provincia Uiguristaniae in Sinis inventae sunt cum saccis cannabis sub capitibus. Absentibus indiciis usuum cannabis aliorum in eorum societatibus, plane videtur magos psychotropicis fructos esse.[60]
To forbid or even seriously to restrict the use of so gracious an herb as hemp would cause widespread suffering and annoyance and, to large bands of worshipped ascetics, deep-seated anger. It would rob the people of a solace in discomfort, of a cure in sickness, of a guardian whose gracious protection saves them from the attacks of evil influences, and whose mightly power makes the devotee of the Victorious, overcoming the demons of hunger and thirst, of panic, fear, of the glamour of Maya or matter, and of madness, able in rest to brood on the Eternal, till the Eternal, possessing him body and soul, frees him from the haunting of self and receives him into the Ocean of Being. These beliefs the Musalman devotee shares to the full. Like his Hindu brother, the Musalman fakir reveres bhang as the lengthener of life, the freer from the bonds of self. Bhang brings union with the Divine spirit. "We drank bhang and the mystery I am he grew plain. So grand a result, so tiny a sin."[61] Vetare vel modo arte usum definire herbae tam gratae quam cannabis pareret miseriam ac vexationem late divulgatam et, multis gregibus pientissimorum ascetarum, furorem profundum. Solacium populo in arduis privaret rebus, curam in aegrotatione, custodem cuius grata tutela repellet impetus virium malevolentum, et cuius potestas cultorem Victorii facit daemones superando famis sitisque, pavoris ac terroris ac nitoris Maiae vel materiae, et insanitatis, cultorem qui potest in quiete incubare in Aeternum, donec Aeternus eum, corpus animamque potitus, solvit vinculis sollicitudinum identitatis eumque accipit in Oceanum Essentiae. Has communicat fides Musulmanus omnino. Sicut eius frater Indicus, fachirus Musulmanus bhang reveritur sicut si vitam extenderet et vincula identitatis solveret. Bhang fert concordiam cum spiritu divino. "Bhang bibimus, et mysterium me esse eum claratum est. O pergrandem eventum! perparvum peccatum!"
– J. M. Campbell, Indian Hemp Drugs Commission Report
– convertit Ioscius
Citationes
Palladius. Opus Agriculturae Palladius Rutilius Taurus Aemilianus: Opus agriculturae apud www.forumromanum.org, 3.5 et 4.5
Isidorus Hispalensis. Etymologiarum Libri Viginti, 19.27.2-3.
Sativa sane refert adiectivum ductum de sero, serere, sevi, satum.
Linnaeus in suis Speciebus Plantarum scripsit sativam anno 1723, sed Caspar Bauhin fuit primus, anno 1597.
Janischevsky anno 1924 designavit novam speciem ex Asia Centrali et Siberia Occidentali fibrosiorem.
Amala Raman, Davide Brown censore "The Cannabis Plant," ex Cannabis: The Genus Cannabis, (Universitas Portus Magni: Schola Pharmaceutica, 1998), p. 29.
Consilium veterinariis scriptum quo depressio, ataxia, et bradycardia inter alios effectus cannabis in animalia enumerantur. Commentatio apud ASPCA. (Anglice)
Pierre Chantaire. Dictionaire étymologique de la langue grecque: Istoire des mots, tome II e-?. Kincksieck. Lutetiae 1970.
Sara Benetowa, Georgio Andrews et Simone Vinkenoog censoribus. Tracing one word through different languages. The Book of Grass. Grove Press. Novi Eboraci, 1967.
Immanuel Löw. Flora der Juden, vol. I-IV. Hildeshein 1924 et iterum editus 1967.
Ut legas de potione cannabina Indica, quae et hodie eodem nomine appellatur, vide bhang
Ex Hebraica lingua in Syriacam transiens, per metathesin, consonantium verbi ordo mutatus est. Ergo Hebraice png ? Syriace qnp.
Mechoulam, R., W. A. Devane, A. Breuer, et J. Zahalka. A random walk through a Cannabis field. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 461-464. (Anglice)
Raman Amala, et Davide T. Brown censore, "The Cannabis Plant," ex Cannabis: The Genus (India: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1998), ISBN 90-5702-291-5.
Bractea est verbum Latinum hodiernum ad verbum Anglicum secundum Merriam-Webster bract (Anglice)
Paul G. Mahlberg et Eun Soo Kim. THC (tetrahyrdocannabinol) accumulation in glands of Cannabis (Cannabaceae). The Hemp Report 3(17). 23 Februarii 2007.
http://mojo.calyx.net/~olsen/HEMP/IHA/iha02111.html
Robertus C. Clarke. Marijuana Botany, 2nd ed. Ron Publishing. California, 1991. ISBN 0-914171-78-X
E. Small, "Morphological variation of achenes of Cannabis," Canadian Journal of Botany 53(10):978–987. 1975.
Ainsworth Boys and girls come out to play: the molecular biology of dioecious plants. Annals of Botany 86(2): 211-221.
S. Lebel-Hardenack. et S. R. Grant. Genetics of sex determination in flowering plants. Trends in Plant Science 2(4): 130–136.
Cristiana Moliterni, V. M., L. Cattivelli, P. Ranalli, et G. Mandolino. The sexual differentiation of Cannabis sativa L.: A morphological and molecular study. Euphytica 140(1-2): 95–106. 25 Februarii 2007
E. P. M de Meijer. Cannabis germplasm resources. Advances in Hemp Research, pp. 131-151. Haworth Press. Binghamton, NY. ISBN 1-56022-872-5
Mignoni. Cannabis as a licit crop: recent developments in Europe. 1999
Schumann, E., A. Peil, et W. E. Weber. 1999. Preliminary results of a German field trial with different hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) accessions. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 46(4): 399-407. Retrieved on 24 February 2007
P. Ranalli. Current status and future scenarios of hemp breeding. Euphytica, 140(1): 121-131. 2004.
G. Mandolino et P. Ranalli. The applications of molecular markers in genetics and breeding of hemp. Journal of Industrial Hemp 7(1): 7-23. 2002.
K. Hirata. Sex reversal in hemp. Journal of the Society of Agriculture and Forestry, 16: 145-168. 1924.
J. H. Schaffner. The fluctuation curve of sex reversal in staminate hemp plants induced by photoperiodicity. American Journal of Botany, 18(6): 424-430. 1931.
http://www.green.net.au/gf/hemp_cultivation.htm
Plinius, Naturalis historia, XIX.56.
Varro. De Re Rustica I.28
Hic usus differt a nostro. Vide legumen.
Columella, De Re Rustica, 2.7 et 2.10
Richard Rudgley. The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age. Touchstone. Novi Eboraci 1999. ISBN 0-684-85580-1.
Martinus Booth, Cannabis: A history Doubleday. UK, 2003.
Herodoti Historiae.
Textus Pyramidales, carmen 319, §514a (v. 639-40)
"The ancient Egyptian word šmšmt was in the past wrongly taken to mean sesame, but has now been shown to be Cannabis sativa." Lise Mannsiche. An Ancient Egyptian Herbal. University of Texas Press; 1st University of Texas Press ed edition (1989), p. 82.
Ricardus Rudgley. The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Substances. Little, Brown, and Company. 1998.
Lyndsey Osburn. Hemp Seed:: The most nutritionally complete food source in the world. Hemp Line Journal, Iulius-Augustus 1992, pp. 14-15, Vol. I No. 1. (Anglice)
JC Callaway. Hempseed as a nutritional resource: an overview. Euphytica, 140:65-72. 2004.
Meineke Kyd. frag 2
Quoque bacca.
Non bene intelligitur quid sibi velint ß?????, ß???µ??, vel µ????.
Hic quoque nescimus quid sibi velit Iovis cerebrum. Intelligitur esse bucella regalis vel bucella regis. Henricus Liddell, Robertus Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon. 9a ed. (Oxonii, 1925-1940)
Ioannes Schweighaeuser Argentoratensis. Athenaei Naucratitae Deipnosophistarum Libri Quindecim, tomus quintus, ad locum Dipnosophistae 14.50
Galenus. De alimentorum facultatibus, 1.34.
Martinus Gregorius, Augustino Gadaldino emendante. Galeni Librorum Secunda Classis ex septima Iuntarum editione, "Galeni De Alimentorum Facultatibus libri tres", p. 15. 1597.
Historia bhang.
Reginaldus Campbell Thompson. A dictionary of Assyrian botany.
Franjo Grotenhermen. Review of Therapeutic Effects. Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Potential, p. 124. New York City: Haworth Press. 2002. ISBN 978-0-7890-1508-2.
http://www.marijuanalibrary.org/brain2.txt
Akinde Omotayo. The Medical Applications of Cannabinoids. Borough of Manhattan Community College.
Cannabis apud http://www.erowid.org
Hui-Lin Li 1974. An archeological and historical account of Cannabis in China. Economic Botany 28(4): 437-448.
Pagina prima apud NORML.
http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/bulletin/bulletin_1962-01-01_4_page005.html
Caput 4, 12.
Hong-En Jiang et al. A new insight into Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae) utilization from 2500-year-old Yanghai tombs, Xinjiang, China. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 108 (3): 414–422.
J. M. Campbell. Indian Hemp Drugs Commission Report, 1893–1894.
Vide etiam
Cannabis in cultura populari
Nexus externi
Commons-logo.svg Vicimedia Communia plura habent quae ad Cannabim spectant.
Cannabis apud http://www.erowid.com (Anglice)
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Seriously, doth mr40 care about anyone
else but hem's collective, jointly-cooperated selfish selves?
Such greed stinketh to high heaven.
And one of those of you who loveth me, kindly buy me a minimalist
short-term subscription,
or better yet,
send me your contact information
by private message so we can get to work
on the future together. So much remaineth to be done.
E.g. http://www.brookings.edu/blogs/iran-at-saban/posts/2014/07/22-arbell-turkey-israel-look-beyond-gaza-restore-ties
common_man
Could they start buying cannabis from Colorado and Washington? Generally people who use the sacred plant are not mean-spirited to others. And it was scientifically studied first in Israel.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabis
http://www.thereflector.com/news/image_8589aca4-0c67-11e4-82e8-0019bb2963f4.html
http://koin.com/2014/07/15/business-brisk-for-legal-pot-in-vancouver/
http://www.wweek.com/portland/article-22794-willie_weed_contact_in_the_couv.html
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/07/15/marijuana-poll_n_5588147.html
common_man
Dear fuagf, I praise your creator for your wisdom. I only wish I could afford to communicate in private with you as you are able to do with me. Good luck to all people of goodwill and kind hearts.
What a great dignified artist is Mr. Benito Santiago of 151 Duboce St., 2nd Floor, San Francisco, CA. Any help our readers can give him will be rewarded in karmic improvement for all humanity. The keyboard/teklado is mightier than the sword. Sigue naman.
http://blogs.kqed.org/newsfix/2014/07/11/priced-out-artist-turned-housing-activist-describes-his-ellis-act-eviction
De mortuis nihil nisi bonum.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_mortuis_nil_nisi_bonum
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Savile
The unexamined life is not worth living.
common_man
You too, fuagf, are a rare gem for your thoughtfulness. I know the many hours you devote to beauty and truth. Thank your mother,
Mnemosyne: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnemosyne
common_man
Ebonics is a fine word: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebonics_(word)
Teabonics is a neologism portmanteau word:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portmanteau.
Teabonic spelling is atrocious, as your fine photographs show.
I am embarrassed by my countrymen's spelling!
Good spelling can come from love of the word.
In principio erat verbum, et verbum erat apud Deum,
et Deus erat verbum.
common_man
BDPT is up 5,800,000% and all is relative.
I am one of the folks hoping to sell today.
Keep up your good work. You are essential.
Honesty without too much emotion is too rare. You have got it!
Homo sum, humani nihil a me alienum puto.
Common_man
BDPT is up 6,000,000%, and all is relative.
I found the iHub discussion board for this issue, BioAdaptives, Inc.
Thanks to the moderators: John Gault, Investor4u, iceman329
Thank you, Sir Robert, for your honest research.
Homo sum, humani nihil a me alienum puto.
common_man
Congratulations on BDPT in your E Trade acct.
It is up about 1,800,000% on its first trading day. All is relative.
BDPT also showed up in my TD Ameritrade acct.
Would someone please start a BDPT discussion board here on iHub?
Thank you.
common_man
TD Ameritrade studied and illuminated:
http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/23/opinion/best-execution-and-rebates-for-brokers.html
So difficult to be an ethical, virtuous capitalist!
common_man
When drones fall from the sky
it would be good to have an armored bunker...
http://www.washingtonpost.com/sf/investigative/2014/06/20/when-drones-fall-from-the-sky/
Safety first.
common_man
Understanding Muslim sects:
http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2012/0205/Sunni-and-Shiite-Islam-Do-you-know-the-difference-Take-our-quiz/Question-1
Open the above link in a separate window to continue reading iHub.
If you miss the first question, go on to the second one, and then go back. You will thus get the answers correct.
This way you can learn the answers. Practice improves the understanding.
Enjoy learning different cultures, history, customs, languages and logic. ;)
common_man
I am awed by your sense of wisdom, fuagf.
http://www.sciencecare.com/ works.
People are dying for lack of replacement organs and tissues, from causes natural, accidental and criminal.
If possible, please have my erroneous posting, #224005, deleted.
Yes, we are not worthless as people. However it seems our understanding is less than stellar sometimes. ;)
Even our fresh corpses have value for the living. ;)
My purpose is to get the Turks and Kurds together and into the European Union as a start to World Union. And the Roma, and the Armenians, and the Jews, and the you-name-them, to sink selfish interests for the good of the human family.
We are our brothers' keepers, really.
common_man
Dear fuagf, I was trained in mortality management.
https://www.sciencecare.com will have my mortal coil when I go on to my fathers. My tissues and organs will hopefully help others have a more abundant life.
Thank you for the information on the border ditch: http://uk.reuters.com/article/2014/04/17/uk-kurds-iraq-syria-idUKBREA3G1I020140417
I am yearning to go to Erbil in what is still northern Iraq, even for a day or a week. We would fly to Istanbul and spend a short time with friends. I get air tickets at www.asaptickets.com, which are cheapest.
And thanks again for the comprehensive article: http://pando.com/2014/06/16/the-war-nerd-heres-everything-you-need-to-know-about-too-extreme-for-al-qaeda-i-s-i-s/
Erbil doctors from Kurd media: http://rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/160620145
Peace and understanding from a worthless man...;)
common_man
Would you or anyone you know like to fly into Kurdistan to the city of Erbil - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erbil_International_Airport - to have a look-see?
We could be possibly somehow influential in the establishment of a legal and proper independent country for some of the Kurds -
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurdish_nationalism
Just an idea. ;)
A personal message would open a conversation. Retired. Thanks.
common_man
HEMP BEER:
Hemp documentary inspires beer collaboration
Posted on June 16, 2014 by Gina Smith
ASHEVILLE_posterSm
Black Mountain’s Lookout Brewing has collaborated with Hi-Wire Brewing and Urban Orchard Cider to create a small-batch, short-release hemp-seed oil brew in support of a documentary made by local filmmakers about industrialized hemp. The beer will be available at a special screening of the movie, Bringing It Home, at 7:30 p.m. Tuesday, June 17, at Asheville Community Theatre. www.BringingItHomeMovie.com
According to a press release from Asheville-based filmmakers Linda Booker and Blaire Johnson, the 52-minute movie “tells the story of hemp’s past, present and future through interviews with international hemp business leaders and entrepreneurs, archive images, animation and footage filmed in Europe and the United States.” It features Asheville resident Anthony Brenner, who designed and built a house out of hempcrete, a nontoxic, recyclable building material reinforced with hemp fiber.
Bringing It Home received the Jury Award at the 2014 Wild & Scenic Environmental Film Festival and the Best Environmental Film award from the Sedona International Film Festival.
Roots will make a special batch of hemp hummus for the screening, and other hemp-related food samples will be available at the event, including dark chocolate-covered hemp seeds from Himalania, hemp power bars from Everbar, hemp Sunny Bars from Nature’s Path and hemp-seed samples from Nutiva.
The filmmakers will host a discussion session after the screening. Tickets are $10. Asheville Community Theatre is at 35 E. Walnut St.
http://mountainx.com/food/hemp-documentary-inspires-beer-collaboration/
Argentina-Bos and Herz world cup game set to begin in less than 10 minutes.
Enjoy:
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/football/world-cup/10900954/Argentina-vs-Bosnia-and-Herzegovina-World-Cup-2014-live.html
Finest human game.
common_man
Current war map of Iraq:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Iraq_war_detailed_map
common_man
Great man and great story.
If you want to fly with me to Erbil International Airport in Iraqi Kurdistan, PM me and....
http://www.france24.com/en/20140614-video-kurds-eye-independence-iraq-slides-chaos/
common_man
US pushing local police departments to keep quiet on cell-phone surveillance technology
http://news.yahoo.com/us-pushing-local-cops-stay-174613067.html;_ylt=AwrBJR4e65lTwmEAb7zQtDMD
WASHINGTON (AP) -- The Obama administration has been quietly advising local police not to disclose details about surveillance technology they are using to sweep up basic cellphone data from entire neighborhoods, The Associated Press has learned.
Citing security reasons, the U.S. has intervened in routine state public records cases and criminal trials regarding use of the technology. This has resulted in police departments withholding materials or heavily censoring documents in rare instances when they disclose any about the purchase and use of such powerful surveillance equipment.
Federal involvement in local open records proceedings is unusual. It comes at a time when President Barack Obama has said he welcomes a debate on government surveillance and called for more transparency about spying in the wake of disclosures about classified federal surveillance programs.
One well-known type of this surveillance equipment is known as a Stingray, an innovative way for law enforcement to track cellphones used by suspects and gather evidence. The equipment tricks cellphones into identifying some of their owners' account information, like a unique subscriber number, and transmitting data to police as if it were a phone company's tower. That allows police to obtain cellphone information without having to ask for help from service providers, such as Verizon or AT&T, and can locate a phone without the user even making a call or sending a text message.
But without more details about how the technology works and under what circumstances it's used, it's unclear whether the technology might violate a person's constitutional rights or whether it's a good investment of taxpayer dollars.
Interviews, court records and public-records requests show the Obama administration is asking agencies to withhold common information about the equipment, such as how the technology is used and how to turn it on. That pushback has come in the form of FBI affidavits and consultation in local criminal cases.
"These extreme secrecy efforts are in relation to very controversial, local government surveillance practices using highly invasive technology," said Nathan Freed Wessler, a staff attorney with the American Civil Liberties Union, which has fought for the release of these types of records. "If public participation means anything, people should have the facts about what the government is doing to them."
Harris Corp., a key manufacturer of this equipment, built a secrecy element into its authorization agreement with the Federal Communications Commission in 2011. That authorization has an unusual requirement: that local law enforcement "coordinate with the FBI the acquisition and use of the equipment." Companies like Harris need FCC authorization in order to sell wireless equipment that could interfere with radio frequencies.
A spokesman from Harris Corp. said the company will not discuss its products for the Defense Department and law enforcement agencies, although public filings showed government sales of communications systems such as the Stingray accounted for nearly one-third of its $5 billion in revenue. "As a government contractor, our solutions are regulated and their use is restricted," spokesman Jim Burke said.
Local police agencies have been denying access to records about this surveillance equipment under state public records laws. Agencies in San Diego, Chicago and Oakland County, Michigan, for instance, declined to tell the AP what devices they purchased, how much they cost and with whom they shared information. San Diego police released a heavily censored purchasing document. Oakland officials said police-secrecy exemptions and attorney-client privilege keep their hands tied. It was unclear whether the Obama administration interfered in the AP requests.
"It's troubling to think the FBI can just trump the state's open records law," said Ginger McCall, director of the open government project at the Electronic Privacy Information Center. McCall suspects the surveillance would not pass constitutional muster.
"The vast amount of information it sweeps in is totally irrelevant to the investigation," she said.
A court case challenging the public release of information from the Tucson Police Department includes an affidavit from an FBI special agent, Bradley Morrison, who said the disclosure would "result in the FBI's inability to protect the public from terrorism and other criminal activity because through public disclosures, this technology has been rendered essentially useless for future investigations."
Morrison said revealing any information about the technology would violate a federal homeland security law about information-sharing and arms-control laws — legal arguments that that outside lawyers and transparency experts said are specious and don't comport with court cases on the U.S. Freedom of Information Act.
The FBI did not answer questions about its role in states' open records proceedings.
But a former Justice Department official said the federal government should be making this argument in federal court, not a state level where different public records laws apply.
"The federal government appears to be attempting to assert a federal interest in the information being sought, but it's going about it the wrong way," said Dan Metcalfe, the former director of the Justice Department's office of information and privacy. Currently Metcalfe is the executive director of American University's law school Collaboration on Government Secrecy project.
A criminal case in Tallahassee cites the same homeland security laws in Morrison's affidavit, court records show, and prosecutors told the court they consulted with the FBI to keep portions of a transcript sealed. That transcript, released earlier this month, revealed that Stingrays "force" cellphones to register their location and identifying information with the police device and enables officers to track calls whenever the phone is on.
One law enforcement official familiar with the Tucson lawsuit, who spoke on condition of anonymity because the official was not authorized to speak about internal discussions, said federal lawyers told Tucson police they couldn't hand over a PowerPoint presentation made by local officers about how to operate the Stingray device. Federal officials forwarded Morrison's affidavit for use in the Tucson police department's reply to the lawsuit, rather than requesting the case be moved to federal court.
In Sarasota, Florida, the U.S. Marshals Service confiscated local records on the use of the surveillance equipment, removing the documents from the reach of Florida's expansive open-records law after the ACLU asked under Florida law to see the documents. The ACLU has asked a judge to intervene. The Marshals Service said it deputized the officer as a federal agent and therefore the records weren't accessible under Florida law.
common_man
How Cell Phones Are Being Monitored:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stingray_Phone_Tracker
A stingray is a controversial[1] electronic surveillance device for remotely capturing data from mobile telephones.[2] It is designed to mimic a cell tower so all the mobile phones in the area communicate with it and provide information, including location data. This can be done even when the phone is not being used to make a call.[2][3] Critics have called the use of the devices by government agencies warrantless cell phone tracking, as they have frequently been used without informing the court system or obtaining a warrant.[1] The Electronic Frontier Foundation has called the devices “an unconstitutional, all-you-can-eat data buffet.”[4] A stingray can be carried by hand or mounted on a vehicle, such as an unmanned aerial vehicle.[3] The devices are also referred to as “cell site simulators” and “IMSI catchers.”
The Harris Corporation is a leading manufacturer of stingrays and produces several of the devices.[5] Harris Corporation has trademarks registered between 2002 and 2008 on the StingRay, StingRay II, AmberJack, KingFish, TriggerFish and LoggerHead.[2] The devices are sold by the Wireless Products Group[6], which is run by Group President of Government Communications Systems Sheldon Fox.[7] Sheldon Fox reports directly to Harris Corporation President and CEO William M Brown.[8]
The use of the devices has been frequently funded by grants from the Department of Homeland Security and has largely been kept secret from the court system and the public.[9]
The Los Angeles Police Department used a Department of Homeland Security grant in 2006 to buy a stingray for "regional terrorism investigations." However, according to the Electronic Freedom Foundation, the "LAPD has been using it for just about any investigation imaginable."[10]
In 2014, Police in Florida revealed they had used such devices at least 200 additional times since 2010 without disclosing it to the courts or obtaining a warrant.[1] The ACLU has filed multiple requests for the public records of Florida law enforcement agencies about their use of the cell phone tracking devices known as “stingrays.[11]
In June 2014, the American Civil Liberties Union published information from court regarding the extensive use of these devices by local police in the state of Florida in the USA.[12] After this publication, United States Marshals Service then seized the local police's surveillance records in a bid to keep them from coming out in court.[13]
The ACLU has said “potentially unconstitutional government surveillance on this scale should not remain hidden from the public just because a private corporation desires secrecy. And it certainly should not be concealed from judges.”[1]
In December 2013, USA Today conducted an investigation into the use of stingrays in the US.[14] The investigation of more than 125 police agencies in 33 states showed about one in four law-enforcement agencies have done a "tower dump," which gives them information about the identity, activity and location of any phone near the targeted cellphone towers. Additionally, at least 25 police departments own a stingray. In some states, the devices are made available to local police departments by state surveillance units. The federal government funds most of the purchases with anti-terror grants. Thirty-six more police agencies refused to say whether they own or use the devices and most of them refused to comply with submitted public records requests.[14]
News10 in California identified 9 agencies that own or are buying stingray devices: Alameda County District Attorney’s Office, Fremont Police Department, Los Angeles Police Department, Los Angeles Sheriff’s Department, Oakland Police Department, Sacramento Sheriff’s Department, San Diego Police Department, San Francisco Police Department, and San José Police Department.[15]
See also[edit]
Cellphone surveillance
Mobile phone tracking
Kyllo v. United States
References[edit]
^ Jump up to: a b c d Florida Cops’ Secret Weapon: Warrantless Cellphone Tracking Wired. 3 March 2014.
^ Jump up to: a b c Valentino-Devries, Jennifer (September 22, 2011), "'Stingray' Phone Tracker Fuels Constitutional Clash", The Wall Street Journal, retrieved September 22, 2011
^ Jump up to: a b Jennifer Valentino-DeVries (22 October 2012). "Judge Questions Tools That Grab Cellphone Data on Innocent People". WSJ Blogs. Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 6 November 2012.
Jump up ^ As Secretive "Stingray" Surveillance Tool Becomes More Pervasive, Questions Over Its Illegality Increase Electronic Frontier Foundation. 12 February 2013.
Jump up ^ Company Producing Spy Gear for Cops Calls Cops on PINAC for Recording Facilities from Public, by Carlos Miller, Photography is Not a Crime
Jump up ^ http://www.nbcnews.com/business/consumer/pricey-stingray-gadget-lets-cops-track-cellphones-without-telco-help-f635294
Jump up ^ http://investing.businessweek.com/research/stocks/people/person.asp?personId=26790423&ticker=HRS
Jump up ^ Compensation Information for William M. Brown , President and Chief Executive Officer of HARRIS CORP Salary.com
Jump up ^ Police use cellphone spying device New York News
Jump up ^ LAPD Spied on 21 Using StingRay Anti-Terrorism Tool LA Weekly
Jump up ^ U.S. Marshals Seize Local Cops’ Cell Phone Tracking Files in Extraordinary Attempt to Keep Information From Public American Civil Liberties Union
Jump up ^ "Transcription of Suppression Hearing (Complete)". American Civil Liberties Union.
Jump up ^ Kim Zetter (2014-06-03). "U.S. Marshals Seize Cops’ Spying Records to Keep Them From the ACLU". Wired Magazine.
^ Jump up to: a b Cellphone data spying: It's not just the NSA USA TODAY
Jump up ^ 9 Calif. law enforcement agencies connected to cellphone spying technology News10
common_man
FEAR CONSIDERATIONS:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fear
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fear_of_God
Fear
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the emotion. For other uses, see Fear (disambiguation).
A scared child shows fear in an uncertain environment.
Fear is an emotion induced by a threat perceived by living entities, which causes a change in brain and organ function and ultimately a change in behavior, such as running away, hiding or freezing from traumatic events. Fear may occur in response to a specific stimulus happening in the present, or to a future situation, which is perceived as risk to health or life, status, power, security, or in the case of humans wealth or anything held valuable. The fear response arises from the perception of danger leading to confrontation with or escape from/avoiding the threat (also known as the fight-or-flight response), which in extreme cases of fear (horror and terror) can be a freeze response or paralysis.
In humans and animals, fear is modulated by the process of cognition and learning. Thus fear has been judged as rational or appropriate and irrational or inappropriate. An irrational fear is called a phobia.
Psychologists such as John B. Watson, Robert Plutchik, and Paul Ekman have suggested that there is only a small set of basic or innate emotions and that fear is one of them. This hypothesized set includes such emotions as joy, sadness, fright, dread, horror, panic, anxiety, acute stress reaction and anger.
Fear should be distinguished from, but is closely related to, the emotion anxiety, which occurs as the result of threats which are perceived to be uncontrollable or unavoidable.[1]
The fear response serves survival by generating appropriate behavioral responses, as it has been preserved throughout evolution.[2]
Contents
1 Etymology
2 Types
2.1 Top 10 types of fear in the U.S.
2.2 Common phobias
2.3 Fear of survival
2.4 Fear of death
2.5 Fear of the unknown
2.6 Fear of uncertainty and unpredictability
3 Causes
4 Symptoms and signs of fear
5 Fear in animals
6 Neurocircuit of fear in mammals
6.1 Fear pheromones and why fear can be contagious
6.2 Fear pheromones in humans
7 Fears in culture
7.1 Death
7.2 Religion
7.3 Manipulation
7.4 Mirroring fears
8 Overcoming fear
8.1 Pharmaceutical
8.2 Psychology
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
Etymology
The noun fear stems from the Middle English feer, fere, fer, the Old English f?r for 'calamity, danger' (and its verb f?ran 'frighten', but also 'revere') is related to the Proto-Germanic fera 'danger', the Proto-Indo-European *per- 'to attempt, try, research, risk'. Fear is translated into German with Gefahr, into Dutch with gevaar, into Swedish with fara, into Albanian with frikë, and into Latin with periculum, which is the root for the term in the Romanic languages.[3]
The noun fear can be used in three ways with different meanings: In the uncountable form fear is a strong, uncontrollable, unpleasant emotion caused by actual or perceived danger, e.g. 'He was struck by fear on seeing the snake'. In the countable form, and when used with the indefinite article "a fear" means a phobia, a sense of fear induced by something or someone, e.g. 'Not everybody has the same fears; I have a fear of ants.' In an uncountable form it can also mean extreme veneration or awe, as toward a supreme being or deity.[3]
Types
Top 10 types of fear in the U.S.
In a 2005 Gallup poll (U.S.A.), a national sample of adolescents between the ages of 13 and 17 were asked what they feared the most. The question was open-ended and participants were able to say whatever they wanted. The top ten fears were, in order: terrorist attacks, spiders, death, being a failure, war, criminal or gang violence, being alone, the future, and nuclear war.[4]
In an estimate of what people fear the most, book author Bill Tancer analyzed the most frequent online queries that involved the phrase, "fear of..." following the assumption that people tend to seek information on the issues that concern them the most. His top ten list of fears published 2008 consisted of flying, heights, clowns, intimacy, death, rejection, people, snakes, failure, and driving.[5]
Common phobias
See also: phobia
According to surveys[citation needed], some of the most common fears are of demons and ghosts, the existence of evil powers, cockroaches, spiders, snakes, heights, water, enclosed spaces, tunnels, bridges, needles, social rejection, failure, examinations and public speaking.
Though most arachnids are harmless, a person with arachnophobia may still panic or feel uneasy around one. Sometimes, even an object resembling a spider can trigger a panic attack in an arachnophobic individual. The above cartoon is a depiction of the nursery rhyme "Little Miss Muffet", in which the title character is "frightened away" by a spider.
One of the most common fears in humans is the fear of public speaking. People may be comfortable speaking inside a room but when it becomes public speaking, fear enters in the form of suspicion over whether the words uttered are correct or incorrect because there are many to judge them. Another common fear can be of pain, or of someone damaging a person. Fear of pain in a plausible situation brings flinching, or cringing.
Fear of survival
According to Irfan Jamil, coadjutor bishop of Lahore, as the world constantly changes, the greatest fear is the fear of survival. The social, economical, spiritual, political and educational circumstances in life make survival difficult in regard to such pressures that can come out of it.[6][better source needed]
Fear of death
Death anxiety is multidimensional; it covers "fears related to one's own death, the death of others, fear of the unknown after death, fear of obliteration, and fear of the dying process, which includes fear of a slow death and a painful death".[7]
The Yale philosopher Shelly Kagan examined fear of death in a 2007 Yale open course [8] by examining the following questions: Is fear of death a reasonable appropriate response? What conditions are required and what are appropriate conditions for feeling fear of death? What is meant by fear, and how much fear is appropriate? According to Kagan for fear in general to make sense, three conditions should be met: the object of fear needs to be "something bad", there needs to be a non-negligible chance of the bad state of affairs to happen, and there needs to be some uncertainty about the bad state of affairs. The amount of fear should be appropriate to the size of "the bad". If the 3 conditions aren't met, fear is an inappropriate emotion. He argues, that death does not meet the first two criteria, even if death is a "deprivation of good things" and even if one believes in a painful afterlife. Because death is certain, it also does not meet the third criteria, but he grants that the unpredictability of when one dies may be cause to a sense of fear.
In a 2003 study of 167 women and 121 men, aged 65–87, low self-efficacy predicted fear of the unknown after death and fear of dying for women and men better than demographics, social support, and physical health. Fear of death was measured by a "Multidimensional Fear of Death Scale" which included the 8 subscales Fear of Dying, Fear of the Dead, Fear of Being Destroyed, Fear of Significant Others, Fear of the Unknown, Fear of Conscious Death, Fear for the Body After Death, and Fear of Premature Death. In hierarchical multiple regression analysis the most potent predictors of death fears were low "spiritual health efficacy", defined as beliefs relating to one's perceived ability to generate spiritually based faith and inner strength, and low "instrumental efficacy", defined as beliefs relating to one's perceived ability to manage activities of daily living.[7]
Psychologists have tested the hypothesis that fear of death motivates religious commitment, and assurances about an afterlife alleviate the fear and empirical research on this topic has been equivocal.[citation needed] Religiosity can be related to fear of death when the afterlife is portrayed as time of punishment. "Intrinsic religiosity", as opposed to mere "formal religious involvement" has been found to be negatively correlated with death anxiety (reviewed in.[7]
In a 1976 study people of various Christian denominations those most firm in their faith, attending religious services weekly were the least afraid of dying. The survey found a negative correlation between fear of death and "religious concern".[9][better source needed]
In a 2006 study of white, Christian men and women the hypothesis was tested that traditional, church-centered religiousness and de-institutionalized spiritual seeking are ways of approaching fear of death in old age. Both religiousness and spirituality were related to positive psychosocial functioning, but only church-centered religiousness protected subjects against the fear of death.[10][better source needed]
Fear of the unknown
Many people are scared of the "unknown."[citation needed] The unknown can branch out to many areas such as the hereafter, the next ten years, or even tomorrow. Many people are too scared to take the path they want to, because of what may lie ahead. Fear of the unknown is one of the reasons that people do not make an effort to enhance their scholarly education. However, if they do, most people would rather teach things they've been taught than go and do research on something new. They perceive this as a risk that may cause them fear and stress.[11] This can lead to habits such as procrastination.[better source needed]
Fear of uncertainty and unpredictability
The stress of living in a constantly unpredictable environment can cause anxiety, other psychological problems and physical problems. People can develop fear to uncertainty. Parents tell their children not to talk to strangers in order to protect them. However, some research suggests we should not fear strangers, but be mindful of the risks that they could pose on children.[12][better source needed]
Causes
People develop specific fears as a result of learning. This has been studied in psychology as fear conditioning, beginning with John B. Watson's Little Albert experiment in 1920, which was inspired after observing a child with an irrational fear of dogs. In this study, an 11-month-old boy was conditioned to fear a white rat in the laboratory. The fear became generalized to include other white, furry objects, such as a rabbit, dog, and even a ball of cotton.
Fear can be learned by experiencing or watching a frightening traumatic accident. For example, if a child falls into a well and struggles to get out, he or she may develop a fear of wells, heights (acrophobia), enclosed spaces (claustrophobia), or water (aquaphobia). There are studies looking at areas of the brain that are affected in relation to fear. When looking at these areas (such as the amygdala), it was proposed that a person learns to fear regardless of whether they themselves have experienced trauma, or if they have observed the fear in others. In a study completed by Andreas Olsson, Katherine I. Nearing and Elizabeth A. Phelps the amygdala were affected both when subjects observed someone else being submitted to an aversive event, knowing that the same treatment awaited themselves, and when subjects were subsequently placed in a fear-provoking situation.[13] This suggests that fear can develop in both conditions, not just simply from personal history.
Fear is affected by cultural and historical context. For example, in the early 20th century, many Americans feared polio, a disease that cripples the body part it affects, leaving that body part immobilized for the rest of one's life.[citation needed] There are consistent cross-cultural differences in how people respond to fear.[citation needed] Display rules affect how likely people are to show the facial expression of fear and other emotions.
Although many fears are learned, the capacity to fear is part of human nature. Many studies[citation needed] have found that certain fears (e.g. animals, heights) are much more common than others (e.g. flowers, clouds). These fears are also easier to induce in the laboratory. This phenomenon is known as preparedness. Because early humans that were quick to fear dangerous situations were more likely to survive and reproduce, preparedness is theorized to be a genetic effect that is the result of natural selection[citation needed].
From an evolutionary psychology perspective, different fears may be different adaptations that have been useful in our evolutionary past. They may have developed during different time periods. Some fears, such as fear of heights, may be common to all mammals and developed during the mesozoic period. Other fears, such as fear of snakes, may be common to all simians and developed during the cenozoic time period. Still others, such as fear of mice and insects, may be unique to humans and developed during the paleolithic and neolithic time periods (when mice and insects become important carriers of infectious diseases and harmful for crops and stored foods).[14]
Fear is high only if the observed risk and seriousness both are high, and is low, if risk or seriousness is low.[15]
Symptoms and signs of fear
Many physiological changes in the body are associated with fear, summarized as the fight-or-flight response. An inborn response for coping with danger, it works by accelerating the breathing rate (hyperventilation), heart rate, constriction of the peripheral blood vessels leading to blushing and vasodilation of the central vessels (pooling), increasing muscle tension including the muscles attached to each hair follicle to contract and causing "goose bumps" aka piloerection (making a cold person warmer or a frightened animal look more impressive), sweating, increased blood glucose (hyperglycemia), increased serum calcium, increase in white blood cells called neutrophilic leukocytes, alertness leading to sleep disturbance and "butterflies in the stomach" (dyspepsia). This primitive mechanism may help an organism survive by either running away or fighting the danger.[16] With the series of physiological changes, the consciousness realizes an emotion of fear.
Fear in animals
Often laboratory studies with rats are conducted to examine the acquisition and extinction of conditioned fear responses.[17] In 2004, researchers conditioned rats (rattus norvegicus) to fear a certain stimulus, through electric shock.[18] The researchers were able to then cause an extinction of this conditioned fear, to a point that no medications or drugs were able to further aid in the extinction process. However the rats did show signs of avoidance learning, not fear, but simply avoiding the area that brought pain to the tests rats. The avoidance learning of rats is seen as a conditioned response, and therefore the behavior can be unconditioned, as supported by the earlier research. Species-specific defense reactions (SSDRs) or avoidance learning in nature is the specific tendency to avoid certain threats or stimuli, it is how animals survive in the wild. Humans and animals both share these species-specific defense reactions, such as the flight, fight, which also include pseudo-aggression, fake or intimidating aggression, freeze response to threats, which is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system. These SSDRs are learned very quickly through social interactions between others of the same species, other species, and interaction with the environment.[19] These acquired sets of reactions or responses are not easily forgotten. The animal that survives is the animal that already knows what to fear and how to avoid this threat. An example in humans is the reaction to the sight of a snake, many jump backwards before cognitively realizing what they are jumping away from, and in some cases it is a stick rather than a snake.
As with many functions of the brain, there are various regions of the brain involved in deciphering fear in humans and other nonhuman species[20] The amygdala communicates both directions between the prefrontal cortex, hypothalamus, the sensory cortex, the hippocampus, thalamus, septum, and the brainstem. The amygdala plays an important role in SSDR, such as the ventral amygdalofugal, which is essential for associative learning, and SSDRs are learned through interaction with the environment and others of the same species. An emotional response is created only after the signals have been relayed between the different regions of the brain, and activating the sympathetic nervous systems; which controls the flight, fight, freeze, fright, and faint response[21] Often a damaged amygdala can cause impairment in the recognition of fear.[22] This impairment can cause different species to lack the sensation of fear, and often can become overly confident, confronting larger peers, or walking up to predatory creatures.
Robert C. Bolles (1970), a researcher at University of Washington, wanted to understand species-specific defense reactions and avoidance learning among animals, but found that the theories of avoidance learning and the tools that were used to measure this tendency were out of touch with the natural world.[23] He theorized the species-specific defense reaction (SSDR)[24] There are three forms of SSDRs: flight, fight (pseudo-aggression), or freeze. Even domesticated animals have SSDRs, and in those moments its seen that animals revert to atavistic standards and become "wild" again. Dr. Bolles states that responses are often dependent on the reinforcement of a safety signal, and not the aversive conditioned stimuli. This safety signal can be a source of feedback or even stimulus change. Intrinsic feedback or information coming from within, muscle twitches, increased heart rate, is seen to be more important in SSRDs than extrinsic feedback, stimuli that comes from the external environment. Dr. Bolles found that most creatures have some intrinsic set of fears, to help assure survival of the species. Rats will run away from any shocking event, and pigeons will flap their wings harder when threatened, the wing flapping in pigeons and the scattered running of rats are considered a species-specific defense reaction or behavior. Bolles believed that SSDR are conditioned through pavlovian conditioning, and not operant conditioning; SSDR arise from the association between the environmental stimuli and adverse events.[25] Michael S. Fanselow conducted an experiment, to test some specific defense reactions, he observed that rats in two different shock situations responded differently, on based on instinct or defensive topography, rather than contextual information [26]
Species specific defense responses are created out of fear, and are essential for survival[27] Rats that lack the gene stathmin show no avoidance learning, or a lack of fear, and will often walk directly up to cats and be eaten.[28] Animals use these SSDR to continue living, to help increase their chance of fitness, by surviving long enough to procreate. Humans and animals alike have created fear to know what should avoided, and this fear can be learned through association with others in the community, or learned through personal experience with a creature, species, or situations that should be avoided. SSDRs are an evolutionary adaptation that has been seen in many species throughout the world including rats, chimpanzees, prairie dogs, and even humans, an adaptation created to help individual creatures survive in a hostile world.
Neurocircuit of fear in mammals
Process of fear:
The thalamus collects sensory data from the senses
Sensory cortex receives data from thalamus and interprets it
Sensory cortex organizes information for dissemination to hypothalamus (fight or flight), amygdala (fear), hippocampus (memory)
The brain structure that is the center of most neurobiological events associated with fear is the amygdala, located behind the pituitary gland. The amygdala is part of a circuitry of fear learning.[2] It is essential for proper adaptation to stress and specific modulation of emotional learning memory. In the presence of a threatening stimulus, the amygdala generates the secretion of hormones that influence fear and aggression.[29] Once response to the stimulus in the form of fear or aggression commences, the amygdala may elicit the release of hormones into the body to put the person into a state of alertness, in which they are ready to move, run, fight, etc. This defensive response is generally referred to in physiology as the fight-or-flight response regulated by the hypothalamus, part of the limbic system.[30] Once the person is in safe mode, meaning that there are no longer any potential threats surrounding them, the amygdala will send this information to the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) where it is stored for similar future situations, which is known as memory consolidation.[31]
Some of the hormones involved during the state of fight-or-flight include epinephrine, norepinephrine and cortisol. Epinephrine regulates heart rate and metabolism as well as dilating blood vessels and air passages. Norepinephrine increases heart rate, blood flow to skeletal muscles and the release of glucose from energy stores.[32] Cortisol increases blood sugar, demarginalizes neutrophilic leukocytes, increases calcium and much more.[33]
After a situation which incites fear occurs, the amygdala and hippocampus record the event through synaptic plasticity.[34] The stimulation to the hippocampus will cause the individual to remember many details surrounding the situation.[35] Plasticity and memory formation in the amygdala are generated by activation of the neurons in the region. Experimental data supports the notion that synaptic plasticity of the neurons leading to the lateral amygdala occurs with fear conditioning.[36] In some cases, this forms permanent fear responses such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or a phobia.[37] MRI and fMRI scans have shown that the amygdala in individuals diagnosed with such disorders including bipolar or panic disorder is larger and wired for a higher level of fear.[38]
Pathogens can suppress amygdala activity. Rats infected with the toxoplasmosis parasite become less fearful of cats, sometimes even seeking out their urine-marked areas. This behavior often leads to them being eaten by cats. The parasite then reproduces within the body of the cat. There is evidence that the parasite concentrates itself in the amygdala of infected rats.[39] In a separate experiment, rats with lesions in the amygdala did not express fear or anxiety towards unwanted stimuli. These rats pulled on levers supplying food that sometimes sent out electrical shocks. While they learned to avoid pressing on them, they did not distance themselves from these shock-inducing levers.[40]
Several brain structures other than the amygdala have also been observed to be activated when individuals are presented with fearful vs. neutral faces, namely the occipitocerebellar regions including the fusiform gyrus and the inferior parietal / superior temporal gyri.[41] Interestingly, fearful eyes, brows and mouth seem to separately reproduce these brain responses.[41] Scientist from Zurich studies show that the hormone oxytocin related to stress and sex reduces activity in your brain fear center.[42]
Fear pheromones and why fear can be contagious
In threatening situations insects, aquatic organisms, birds, reptiles, and mammals emit odorant substances, initially called alarm substances, which are chemical signals now called alarm pheromones ("Schreckstoff" in German). This is to defend themselves and at the same time to inform members of the same species of danger and leads to observable behavior change like freezing, defensive behavior, or dispersion depending on circumstances and species. For example, stressed rats release odorant cues that cause other rats to move away from the source of the signal. Pheromones are synthesized, emitted and perceived by all living organisms studied to date, with the exception of viruses and prions: i.e. in bacteria, prokaryotes, plants, plankton, parasites, insects, invertebrates and vertebrates (aquatic organisms, birds, reptiles, and mammals).
After the discovery of pheromones in 1959, alarm pheromones were first described in 1968 in ants [43] and earthworms,[44] and 4 years later also found in mammals, both mice and rats.[45] Over the next two decades identification and characterization of these pheromones proceeded in all manner of insects and sea animals, including fish, but it was not until 1990, that more insight into mammalian alarm pheromones was gleaned.
Early on, in 1985 a link between odors released by stressed rats and pain perception was discovered in that unstressed rats developed opioid mediated analgesia[46] In 1997 the "odor" was proven to be an alarm pheromone in honeybees who behaved similarly: Bees became less responsive to pain after they had been stimulated with isoamyl acetate, a chemical smelling of banana, and a component of bee alarm pheromone.[47] The experiment also showed that the bee’s fear-induced pain tolerance was mediated by an endorphine.
By using the forced swimming test in rats as a model of fear-induction, the first mammalian "alarm substance" was found.[48]
In 1991, this "alarm substance" was shown to fulfill criteria for pheromones: well-defined behavioral effect, species specificity, minimal influence of experience and control for nonspecific arousal. Rat activity testing with alarm pheromone and their preference/avoidance for odors from cylinders containing the pheromone showed, that the pheromone had very low volatility.[49]
In 1993 a connection between alarm chemosignals in mice and their immune response was found.[50]
Pheromone production in mice was found to be associated with or mediated by the pituitary gland in 1994.[51]
It was not until 2011 that a link between severe pain, neuroinflammation and alarm pheromones release in rats was found: real time RT-PCR analysis of rat brain tissues indicated that shocking the footpad of a rat increased its production of proinflammatory cytokines in deep brain structures, namely of IL-1ß, heteronuclear Corticotropin-releasing hormone and c-fos mRNA expressions in both the paraventricular nucleus and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, and it increased stress hormone levels in plasma (corticosterone).[52]
In 2004, it was demonstrated that rats’ alarm pheromones had different effects on the “recipient“ rat (the rat perceiving the pheromone) depending which body region they were released from: Pheromone production from the face modified behavior in the recipient rat, e.g. caused sniffing or movement, whereas pheromone secreted from the rat's anal area induced autonomic nervous system stress responses, like an increase in core body temperature.[53] Further experiments showed that when a rat perceived alarm pheromones, it increased its defensive and risk assessment behavior.[54] and its acoustic startle reflex was enhanced.
The neurocircuit for how rats perceive alarm pheromones was shown to be related to hypothalamus, brainstem, and amygdala, all of which are evolutionary ancient structures deep inside or in the case of the brainstem underneath the brain away from the cortex, and involved in the Fight-or-flight response, as is the case in humans.[55]
Alarm pheromone-induced anxiety in rats has been used to evaluate the degree to which anxiolytics can alleviate anxiety in humans. For this the change in the acoutic startle reflex of rats with alarm pheromone-induced anxiety (i.e. reduction of defensiveness) has been measured. Pretreatment of rats with one of five anxiolytics used in clinical medicine was able to reduce their anxiety: namely midazolam, phenelzine (a nonselective monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitor), propranolol, a nonselective beta blocker, clonidine, an alpha 2 adrenergic agonist or CP-154,526, a corticotropin-releasing hormone antagonist.[56]
Faulty development of odor discrimination impairs the perception of pheromones and pheromone-related behavior, like aggressive behavior and mating in male rats: The enzyme Mitogen-activated protein kinase 7 (MAPK7) has been implicated in regulating the development of the olfactory bulb and odor discrimination and it is highly expressed in developing rat brains, but absent in most regions of adult rat brains. conditional deletion of the MAPK7gene in mouse neural stem cells impairs several pheromone-mediated behaviors, including aggression and mating in male mice. These behavior impairments were not caused by a reduction in the level of testosterone, by physical immobility, by heightened fear or anxiety or by depression. Using mouse urine as a natural pheromone-containing solution, it has been shown that the impairment was associated with defective detection of related pheromones, and with changes in their inborn preference for pheromones related to sexual and reproductive activities.[57]
Lastly, alleviation of an acute fear response because a friendly peer (or in biological language: an affiliative conspecific) tends and befriends is called "social buffering". The term is in analogy to the 1985 "buffering" hypothesis in psychology, where social support has been proven to mitigate the negative health effects of alarm pheromone mediated distress.[58] The role of a "social pheromone" is suggested by the recent discovery that olfactory signals are responsible in mediating the "social buffering" in male rats.[59] "Social buffering" was also observed to mitigate the conditioned fear responses of honeybees. A bee colony exposed to an environment of high threat of predation did not show increased aggression and aggressive-like gene expression patterns in individual bees, but decreased aggression. That the bees did not simply habituate to threats is suggested by the fact that the disturbed colonies also decreased their foraging.[60]
Biologists have proposed in 2012 that fear pheromones evolved as molecules of "keystone significance", a term coined in analogy to keystone species. Pheromones may determine species compositions, and affect rates of energy and material exchange in an ecological community. Thus pheromones generate structure in a trophic web and play critical roles in maintaining natural systems.[61]
Fear pheromones in humans
Evidence of chemosensory alarm signals in humans has emerged slowly: Although alarm pheromones have not been physically isolated and their chemical structure has not been identified in man so far, there is evidence for their presence. Androstadienone, for example, a steroidal, endogenous odorant, is a pheromone candidate found in human sweat, axillary hair and plasma. The closely related compound androstenone is involved in communicating dominance, aggression or competition; sex hormone influences on androstenone perception in humans showed high testosterone level related to heightened androstenone sensitivity in men, a high testosterone level related to unhappiness in response to androstenone in men, and a high estradiol level related to disliking of androstenone in women.[62]
A German study from 2006 showed when anxiety-induced versus exercise-induced human sweat from a dozen people was pooled and offered to seven study participants, of five able to olfactorily distinguish exercise-induced sweat from room air, three could also distinguish exercise-induced sweat from anxiety induced sweat. The acoustic startle reflex response to a sound when sensing anxiety sweat was larger than when sensing exercise-induced sweat, as measured by electromyograph analysis of the orbital muscle, which is responsible for the eyeblink component. This showed for the first time that fear chemosignals can modulate the startle reflex in humans without emotional mediation; fear chemosignals primed the recipient's "defensive behavior" prior to the subjects' conscious attention on the acoustic startle reflex level.[63]
In analogy to the social buffering of rats and honeybees in response to chemosignals, induction of empathy by smelling anxiety of another person has been found in humans.[64]
A study from 2013 provided brain imaging evidence that human responses to fear chemosignals may be gender-specific. Researchers collected alarm-induced sweat and exercise-induced sweat from donors extracted it, pooled it and presented it to 16 unrelated people undergoing functional brain MRI. While stress-induced sweat from males produced a comparably strong emotional response in both females and males, stress-induced sweat from females produced a markedly stronger arousal in women than in men. Statistical tests pinpointed this gender-specificity to the right amygdala and strongest in the superficial nuclei. Since no significant differences were found in the olfactory bulb, the response to female fear-induced signals is likely based on processing the meaning, i.e. on the emotional level, rather than the strength of chemosensory cues from each gender, i.e. the perceptual level.[65]
An approach–avoidance task set up where volunteers seeing either an angry or a happy cartoon face on a computer screen pushed away or pulled toward them a joystick as fast as possible. Volunteers smelling anandrostadienone, masked with clove oil scent responded faster, especially to angry faces, than those smelling clove oil only, which was interpreted as anandrostadienone-related activation of the fear system.[66] A potential mechanism of action is, that androstadienone alters the "emotional face processing". Androstadienone is known to influence activity of the fusiform gyrus which is relevant for face recognition.
Fears in culture
Painting by Guido Reni c. 1611
Death
The fear of the end and its existence is in other words the fear of death. The fear of death ritualized the lives of our ancestors. These rituals were designed to reduce that fear; they helped collect the cultural ideas that we now have in the present. These rituals also helped preserve the cultural ideas. The results and methods of human existence had been changing at the same time that social formation was changing. One can say that the formation of communities happened because people lived in fear. The result of this fear forced people to unite to fight dangers together rather than fight alone.
Religion
Religions are filled with different fears that humans have had throughout many centuries. The fears aren't just metaphysical (including the problems of life and death) but are also moral. Death is seen as a boundary to another world. That world would always be different depending on how each individual lived their lives. The origins of this intangible fear are not found in the present world. In a sense we can assume that fear was a big influence on things such as morality.
There is another fear in the Bible that has a different meaning. It says to fear God. This is not a fear as in being afraid of God. Fear is used to express a Filial or a slavish passion. In good people, the fear of God is holy awe or reverence of God and his laws, which springs from a just view and real love of the divine character, leading the subject of it to hate and shun every thing that can offend such a holy being and inclining them to aim at perfect obedience.
Fear is often used as a tool by religious leaders to manipulate people. At the Salem witch trials, many innocent women were burnt alive through irrational fear instilled in them by the religious leaders of the community.[citation needed]
Manipulation
M. Korstanje argues that the fear may be politically and culturally manipulated to dissuade citizenry about the implementation of market-oriented policies, otherwise would be widely rejected. In contexts of disasters, nation-states manage the fear not only to provide their citizens with an explanation about the event or blaming some minorities, but also to adjust their previous beliefs. The manipulation of fear is done by means of symbolic instruments as terror movies and the administration ideologies that lead to nationalism. After a disaster, the fear is re-channeled in a climate of euphoria based on patriotism. The fear and evilness are inextricably intertwined.[67]
Mirroring fears
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Fear is found in mythology and folklore superstitions, and portrayed in books and movies. For example, many stories include characters who fear the antagonist of the plot. One of the important characteristics of historical and mythical heroes across cultures is to be fearless in the face of big and often lethal enemies.
Overcoming fear
Pharmaceutical
A drug treatment for fear conditioning and phobias via the amygdala is the use of glucocorticoids.[68] In one study, glucocorticoid receptors in the central nucleus of the amygdala were disrupted in order to better understand the mechanisms of fear and fear conditioning. The glucocorticoid receptors were inhibited using lentiviral vectors containing Cre-recombinase injected into mice. Results showed that disruption of the glucocorticoid receptors prevented conditioned fear behavior. The mice were subjected to auditory cues which caused them to freeze normally. However, a reduction of freezing was observed in the mice that had inhibited glucocorticoid receptors.[69]
Psychology
Cognitive behavioral therapy helping people overcome fear. Because fear is more complex than just forgetting or deleting memories, an active and successful approach involves people repeatedly confronting their fears. By confronting their fears—in a safe manner—a person can suppress the fear-triggering memory or stimulus. Known as ‘exposure therapy’, this practice can help cure up to 90% of people, with specific phobias.[31]
See also
Anxiety attack
Anxiety disorder
Appeal to fear
Culture of fear
Fear mongering
Horror and terror
Hysteria
Night terror
Nightmare
Ontogenetic parade
Panic attack
Paranoia
Phobophobia
Psychological trauma
Shock
Social anxiety disorder
Social anxiety
Voodoo death
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Further reading
Bourke, Joanna (2005). Fear: a cultural history. Virago. ISBN 1-59376-113-9.
Robin, Corey (2004). Fear: the history of a political idea. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-515702-8.
Duenwald, Mary (January 2005). "The Physiology of ... Facial Expressions". Discover 26 (1).
Gardner, Dan (2008). Risk: The Science and Politics of Fear. Random House, Inc. ISBN 0-7710-3299-4.
Jiddu, Krishnamurti (1995). On Fear. Harper Collins. ISBN 0-06-251014-2.
Plamper, Jan (2012). Fear: Across the Disciplines. University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 978-0822962205.
Dixon, Rasheeal (2012). How to overcome fear, and start living fearless. CreateSpace. ISBN 978-1475122046.
External links
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Fear
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fear.
Look up fear in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
The Scent of Fear, a Research Study
Catholic Encyclopedia "Fear (from a Moral Standpoint)"
Fear of God
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses of "Fear of God" see Fear of God (disambiguation).
Fear of God is the idea of living in respect, awe, and submission to a deity.
Contents
1 Christianity
2 Islam
3 Judaism
4 Rejection of the notion
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Christianity
Roman Catholics count this fear as one of the Seven gifts of the Holy Spirit. In Proverbs 1:7 and Proverbs 9:10, the fear of the Lord is called the beginning or foundation of wisdom. In Proverbs 15:33, the fear of the Lord is described as the "discipline" or "instruction" of wisdom.[1][2] The Catholic Encyclopedia explains that this gift "fills us with a sovereign respect for God, and makes us dread, above all things, to offend Him."[3]
In an April 2006 article[4] published in Inside the Vatican magazine, contributing editor John Mallon writes that the "fear" in "fear of the Lord" is often misinterpreted as "servile fear" (the fear of getting in trouble) when it should be understood as "filial fear" (the fear of offending someone whom one loves).
Rudolf Otto coined the term "Numinous" to express the type of fear one has for the Lord. C.S. Lewis references the term in many of his writings, but specifically describes it in his book The Problem of Pain and states that fear of the numinous is not a fear that one feels for a tiger, or even a ghost. Rather, the fear of the numinous, as C. S. Lewis describes it, is one filled with awe, in which you "feel wonder and a certain shrinking" or "a sense of inadequacy to cope with such a visitant of or prostration before it". It is a fear that comes forth out of love for the Lord.
The Fear of God is felt because one understands the "fearful expectation of judgement" (Hebrews 10:27). Still, this is not a fear that leads one to despair, rather it must be coupled with trust, and most importantly, love. In Psalms 130:3-4, it is said, "If you, O Lord, kept a record of sins, O Lord, who could stand? But with you there is forgiveness; therefore you are feared."
The first mention of the fear of God in the Hebrew Bible is in Genesis 22:12, where Abraham is commended for putting his trust in God. The New Testament book of Hebrews comments on this event by explaining, "Abraham, when he was tested, offered up Isaac, and he who had received the promises was in the act of offering up his only son, of whom it was said, 'Through Isaac shall your offspring be named.' He considered that God was able even to raise him from the dead, from which he did receive him back." (Heb 11:17-19). Because of this passage many Christians conclude that Abraham's fear of God was an act of trust in God, that God would give Isaac back to Abraham. Others believe that Abraham's fear of God was his willingness to obey God, even though it would mean losing his Son.[5] Many Jews and Christians believe the fear of God to be devotion itself, rather than a sense of being frightened of God. It can also mean fear of God's judgment.[6] The fear of God is described in Proverbs 8:13 as "the hatred of evil." Throughout the Bible it is said to bring many rewards. Conversely, not fearing God is said to result in Divine retribution.
Some translations of the Bible, such as the New International Version, sometimes replace the word "fear" with "reverence". This is because the Fear of the Lord incorporates more than simple fear. As Robert B. Strimple says, "There is the convergence of awe, reverence, adoration, honor, worship, confidence, thankfulness, love, and, yes, fear."[7]
Islam
Main article: Taqwa
The Love of God, and the Fear of God, are two of the foundations of Islam.
Judaism
See also: Devekut § Forms of love and fear of God
Having the fear of God is most often considered to be a positive sign of spiritual well-being. It is raising ourselves up in a sense of awe to our possibilities and divine glory. It is to be like Moses who humbly aware of his greatness defied a king to lead a nation from enslavement to freedom in Gods honor and glory.
Correction - The fear of God is not the "raising ourselves up in a sense of awe to our possibilities and divine glory" but understanding how God can do this if He so chooses to use us as He did Moses. It was not anything Moses could do or understand himself to himself - it was his humility that God expected as supreme ruler of the universe(s)
Historically
Bahya ibn Paquda characterized two types of fear as a lower "fear of punishment" and a higher "fear of [divine awe] glory."
Abraham *Ibn Daud differentiated between "fear of harm" (analogous to fear of a snake bite or a king's punishment) and "fear of greatness," analogous to respect for an exalted person, who would do us no harm.
Maimonides categorized the fear of God as a positive commandment, as the feeling of human insignificance deriving from contemplation of God's "great and wonderful actions and creations." [8] [9]
Rejection of the notion
Many theological positions reject the notion of a 'fear of God.' Atheism denies the existence of all gods, and so simply proposes no such entity to be feared at all. Religious author Boyd C. Purcell and atheist Sam Harris each have compared doctrines promoting the fear of God to living under the Stockholm syndrome, where hostages feel a misplaced sense of connection and affection for the hostage taker.[10] But some theological positions do propose the possibility of theological realities without having gods to be feared, or with gods which need be feared. For example, the concept of a fear of God is resolutely denied in Buddhism, as well as in Pantheism and Pandeism.
In Buddhism, Gautama Buddha did not endorse belief in a creator deity,[11][12] refused to express any views on creation[13] and stated that questions on the origin of the world are worthless.[14][15] The non-adherence[16] to the notion of an omnipotent creator deity or a prime mover is seen by many as a key distinction between Buddhism and other religions. Rather, Buddhism emphasizes the system of causal relationships underlying the universe (pratitya samutpada) which constitute the natural order (dharma). No dependence of phenomena on a supernatural reality is asserted in order to explain the behaviour of matter. According to the doctrine of the Buddha a human being must study Nature (dhamma vicaya) in order to attain personal wisdom (prajna) regarding the nature of things (dharma). In Buddhism the sole aim of spiritual practice is the complete alleviation of stress in samsara,[17][18] called nirvana. But Buddhists do accept the existence of beings in higher realms (see Buddhist cosmology), known as devas, but they, like humans, are said to be suffering in samsara,[19] and are not necessarily wiser than us. The Buddha is often portrayed as a teacher of the gods,[20] and superior to them.[21] Despite this there are believed to be enlightened devas.[22] But since there may also be unenlightened devas, there may be godlike beings who engage in fearful acts, but if they do so, then they do so out of their own ignorance of a greater truth.
In Pantheism and Pandeism, God either is or has become our Universe, and so fear of God would be no more rational than fear of ourselves, which are part of God, and the notion of God acting in a way to be feared towards us is no more rational than the idea of God acting in a way to be feared towards itself.
See also
Look up theophobia in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Divine retribution
God-fearer
Stygiophobia
Love of God
References
The New Jewish Publication Society of America Version translates the Hebrew as discipline.
The New Revised Standard Version translates the Hebrew as instruction.
"Holy Ghost". Catholic Encyclopedia. 1910.
Mallon, John (April 2006). The Primacy of Jesus, the Primacy of Love. ISSN 1068-8579.
http://www.mountainretreatorg.net/classics/treatise_fear_god.html
http://www.gotquestions.org/fear-God.html
http://www.opc.org/new_horizons/NH01/03a.html
"http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0006_0_06302.html".
"http://www.chiefrabbi.org/2012/08/20/covenant-conversation-5772-shoftim-greatness-is-humility/".
Spiritual Terrorism: Spiritual Abuse from the Womb to the Tomb, by Boyd C. Purcell, page 199, 2008, isbn=1434378888.
Thera, Nyanaponika. "Buddhism and the God-idea". The Vision of the Dhamma. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. "In Buddhist literature, the belief in a creator god (issara-nimmana-vada) is frequently mentioned and rejected, along with other causes wrongly adduced to explain the origin of the world; as, for instance, world-soul, time, nature, etc. God-belief, however, is placed in the same category as those morally destructive wrong views which deny the kammic results of action, assume a fortuitous origin of man and nature, or teach absolute determinism. These views are said to be altogether pernicious, having definite bad results due to their effect on ethical conduct."
Approaching the Dhamma: Buddhist Texts and Practices in South and Southeast Asia by Anne M. Blackburn (editor), Jeffrey Samuels (editor). Pariyatti Publishing: 2003 ISBN 1-928706-19-3 pg 129
Bhikku Bodhi (2007). "III.1, III.2, III.5". In Access To Insight. The All Embracing Net of Views: Brahmajala Sutta. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society.
Thanissaro Bhikku (1997). "Acintita Sutta: Unconjecturable". AN 4.77 (in translated from Pali into English). Access To Insight. "Conjecture about [the origin, etc., of] the world is an unconjecturable that is not to be conjectured about, that would bring madness & vexation to anyone who conjectured about it."
Thanissaro Bhikku (1998). "Cula-Malunkyovada Sutta: The Shorter Instructions to Malunkya" (in translated from Pali into English). Access To Insight. "It's just as if a man were wounded with an arrow thickly smeared with poison. His friends & companions, kinsmen & relatives would provide him with a surgeon, and the man would say, 'I won't have this arrow removed until I know whether the man who wounded me was a noble warrior, a priest, a merchant, or a worker.' He would say, 'I won't have this arrow removed until I know the given name & clan name of the man who wounded me... until I know whether he was tall, medium, or short... The man would die and those things would still remain unknown to him. In the same way, if anyone were to say, 'I won't live the holy life under the Blessed One as long as he does not declare to me that 'The cosmos is eternal,'... or that 'After death a Tathagata neither exists nor does not exist,' the man would die and those things would still remain undeclared by the Tathagata."
Bhikku, Thanissaro (1997). Tittha Sutta: Sectarians (in translated from Pali). "Then in that case, a person is a killer of living beings because of a supreme being's act of creation... When one falls back on lack of cause and lack of condition as being essential, monks, there is no desire, no effort [at the thought], 'This should be done. This shouldn't be done.' When one can't pin down as a truth or reality what should & shouldn't be done, one dwells bewildered & unprotected. One cannot righteously refer to oneself as a contemplative."
Thanissaro Bhikku (2004). "Alagaddupama Sutta: The Water-Snake Simile" (in translated from Pali into English). Access To Insight. "Both formerly and now, monks, I declare only stress and the cessation of stress."
Thanissaro Bhikku (2004). "Anuradha Sutta: To Anuradha" (in translated from Pali into English). Access To Insight. "Both formerly & now, it is only stress that I describe, and the cessation of stress."
John T Bullitt (2005). "The Thirty-one planes of Existence". Access To Insight. Retrieved May 26, 2010. "The suttas describe thirty-one distinct "planes" or "realms" of existence into which beings can be reborn during this long wandering through samsara. These range from the extraordinarily dark, grim, and painful hell realms to the most sublime, refined, and exquisitely blissful heaven realms. Existence in every realm is impermanent; in Buddhist cosmology there is no eternal heaven or hell. Beings are born into a particular realm according to both their past kamma and their kamma at the moment of death. When the kammic force that propelled them to that realm is finally exhausted, they pass away, taking rebirth once again elsewhere according to their kamma. And so the wearisome cycle continues."
Susan Elbaum Jootla (1997). "II. The Buddha Teaches Deities". In Access To Insight. Teacher of the Devas. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. "Many people worship Maha Brahma as the supreme and eternal creator God, but for the Buddha he is merely a powerful deity still caught within the cycle of repeated existence. In point of fact, "Maha Brahma" is a role or office filled by different individuals at different periods." "His proof included the fact that "many thousands of deities have gone for refuge for life to the recluse Gotama" (MN 95.9). Devas, like humans, develop faith in the Buddha by practicing his teachings." "A second deva concerned with liberation spoke a verse which is partly praise of the Buddha and partly a request for teaching. Using various similes from the animal world, this god showed his admiration and reverence for the Exalted One.", "A discourse called Sakka's Questions (DN 21) took place after he had been a serious disciple of the Buddha for some time. The sutta records a long audience he had with the Blessed One which culminated in his attainment of stream-entry. Their conversation is an excellent example of the Buddha as "teacher of devas," and shows all beings how to work for Nibbana."
Bhikku, Thanissaro (1997). Kevaddha Sutta. Access To Insight. "When this was said, the Great Brahma said to the monk, 'I, monk, am Brahma, the Great Brahma, the Conqueror, the Unconquered, the All-Seeing, All-Powerful, the Sovereign Lord, the Maker, Creator, Chief, Appointer and Ruler, Father of All That Have Been and Shall Be... That is why I did not say in their presence that I, too, don't know where the four great elements... cease without remainder. So you have acted wrongly, acted incorrectly, in bypassing the Blessed One in search of an answer to this question elsewhere. Go right back to the Blessed One and, on arrival, ask him this question. However he answers it, you should take it to heart."
http://www.himalayanart.org/pages/Visual_Dharma/yidams.html
External links
Jewish Encyclopedia: Fear of God
common_man
RACISM CONSIDERATIONS:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racism
Racism
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Racial supremacy" redirects here. For other uses, see Racial supremacist.
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Racism consists of both prejudice and discrimination based in social perceptions of biological differences between peoples. It often takes the form of social actions, practices or beliefs, or political systems that consider different races to be ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualities. It may also hold that members of different races should be treated differently.[1][2][3]
Some consider any assumption that a person's behavior might be influenced by their racial categorization is inherently racist, regardless of whether the action is intentionally harmful or pejorative, because stereotyping necessarily subordinates individual identity to group identity. In sociology and psychology, some definitions only include consciously malignant forms of discrimination.[4][5]
One view holds that racism is best understood as 'prejudice plus power' because without the support of political or economic power, prejudice would not be able to manifest as a pervasive cultural, institutional or social phenomenon.[6][7] Among the questions about how to define racism are the question of whether to include forms of discrimination that are unintentional, such as making assumptions about preferences or abilities of others based on racial stereotypes, whether to include symbolic or institutionalized forms of discrimination such as the circulation of ethnic stereotypes through the media, and whether to include the socio-political dynamics of social stratification that sometimes have a racial component. Some definitions of racism also include discriminatory behaviors and beliefs based on cultural, national, ethnic, caste, or religious stereotypes.[2][8] Some critics of the term argue that the term is applied differentially, with a focus on such prejudices by whites, and in ways that define mere observations of any possible differences between races as racism.[9]
While race and ethnicity are considered to be separate phenomena in contemporary social science, the two terms have a long history of equivalence in popular usage and older social science literature. Racism and racial discrimination are often used to describe discrimination on an ethnic or cultural basis, independent of whether these differences are described as racial. According to the United Nations convention, there is no distinction between the terms racial discrimination and ethnic discrimination, and superiority based on racial differentiation is scientifically false, morally condemnable, socially unjust and dangerous, and that there is no justification for racial discrimination, in theory or in practice, anywhere.[10]
In history, racism was a driving force behind the transatlantic slave trade, and behind states based on racial segregation such as the U.S. in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and South Africa under apartheid.[11] Practices and ideologies of racism are universally condemned by the United Nations in the Declaration of Human Rights.[12] It has also been a major part of the political and ideological underpinning of genocides such as The Holocaust, but also in colonial contexts such as the rubber booms in South America and the Congo, and in the European conquest of the Americas and colonization of Africa, Asia and Australia.
Contents
1 Usage of the term and related terms
2 Definitions
2.1 Legal
2.2 Sociological
2.3 Xenophobia
2.4 Supremacism
2.5 Segregationism
3 Types
3.1 Racial discrimination
3.2 Institutional
3.3 Economic
3.4 Declarations and international law against racial discrimination
3.5 Symbolic/Modern
4 Ideology
4.1 Ethnic nationalism
5 Ethnic conflicts
6 Academic variants
6.1 Scientific variants
6.1.1 Heredity and eugenics
6.1.2 Polygenism and racial typologies
6.1.3 Human zoos
7 Evolutionary theories about the origins of racism
8 As state-sponsored activity
9 In history
9.1 In Antiquity
9.2 Middle Ages and Renaissance
9.3 19th century
9.4 20th century
9.5 Contemporary
10 Inter-minority variants
11 Research on influencing factors
12 Anti-racism
12.1 International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
13 See also
14 References & notes
15 Further reading
16 External links
Usage of the term and related terms
Race
Classification
Genetics and differences
Race and genetics
Human genetic variation
Cross-race effect
Society
Historical concepts
Race
in Brazil
in the United States
Racial profiling
Racism
Racialism
The Race Question
(UNESCO 1950)
Related topics
Ethnic group
Eugenics
Genetics
Human evolution
Index
Category
v
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In the 19th century, many scientists subscribed to the simple belief that human populations are divided into separate races.[13] This was often used to justify the belief that some races were inferior to others, and that differential treatment was consequently justified.[14][15][16] Such theories are generally termed scientific racism. When the practice of treating certain groups preferentially, or denying rights or benefits to certain groups, based on racial characteristics is institutionalized, it is termed "institutional racism".
Today, most biologists, anthropologists, and sociologists reject a simple taxonomy of races in favor of more specific and/or empirically verifiable criteria, such as geography, ethnicity, or a history of endogamy.[17]
Those who subscribe to the proposition that there are inherent distinctions among people that can be ascribed to membership in a racial group (and who may use this to justify differential treatment of such groups) tend to describe themselves using the term "racialism" rather than "racism", to avoid the negative connotations of the latter word. "Racialism" is assumed to be more value-neutral terminology, and more appropriate for (scientifically) objective communication or analysis.
However, this distribution of meanings between the two terms used to be precisely inverse at the time they were coined: The Oxford English Dictionary defined "racialism" as "belief in the superiority of a particular race" and gave a 1907 quote as the first recorded use. The updated entry in the Oxford English Dictionary (2008) defines racialism simply as "An earlier term than racism, but now largely superseded by it," and cites it in a 1902 quote.[18] The revised Oxford English Dictionary cites the shortened term "racism" in a quote from the following year, 1903.[19][20][21] It was first defined by the OED as "[t]he theory that distinctive human characteristics and abilities are determined by race", which gives 1936 as the first recorded use. Additionally, the OED records racism as a synonym of racialism: "belief in the superiority of a particular race". By the end of World War II, racism had acquired the same supremacist connotations formerly associated with racialism: racism now implied racial discrimination, racial supremacism and a harmful intent. (The term "race hatred" had also been used by sociologist Frederick Hertz in the late 1920s.)
Modeled on the term "racism", a large number of pejorative -ism terms have been created to describe various types of prejudice: sexism, ageism, ableism, speciesism, etc. Related concepts are antisemitism, chauvinism, homophobia and Islamophobia.
Definitions
Racism involves the belief in racial differences, which acts as a justification for non-equal treatment (which some regard as "discrimination") of members of that race.[14] The term is commonly used negatively and is usually associated with race-based prejudice, violence, dislike, discrimination, or oppression, the term can also have varying and contested definitions. Racialism is a related term, sometimes intended to avoid these negative meanings.
As a word, racism is an "-ism", a belief that can be described by a word ending in the suffix -ism, pertaining to race. As its etymology would suggest, its usage is relatively recent and as such its definition is not entirely settled. The Oxford English Dictionary defines racism as the "belief that all members of each race possess characteristics, abilities, or qualities specific to that race, especially so as to distinguish it as inferior or superior to another race or races" and the expression of such prejudice,[22][23] while the Merriam-Webster's Dictionary defines it as a belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority or inferiority of a particular racial group, and alternatively that it is also the prejudice based on such a belief.[24] The Macquarie Dictionary defines racism as: "the belief that human races have distinctive characteristics which determine their respective cultures, usually involving the idea that one's own race is superior and has the right to rule or dominate others."
Legal
The UN does not define "racism"; however, it does define "racial discrimination": According to the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination,
the term "racial discrimination" shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction, or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin that has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.[25]
This definition does not make any difference between discrimination based on ethnicity and race, in part because the distinction between the two remains debatable among anthropologists.[26] Similarly, in British law the phrase racial group means "any group of people who are defined by reference to their race, colour, nationality (including citizenship) or ethnic or national origin".[27]
In Norway, the word "race" has been removed from national laws concerning discrimination as the use of the phrase is considered problematic and unethical.[28][29] The Norwegian Anti-Discrimination Act bans discrimation based on ethnicity, national origin, descent and skin colour.[30]
Sociological
Some sociologists have defined racism as a system of categorical privilege. In Portraits of White Racism, David Wellman has defined racism as "culturally sanctioned beliefs, which, regardless of intentions involved, defend the advantages whites have because of the subordinated position of racial minorities".[31] Sociologists Noël A. Cazenave and Darlene Alvarez Maddern define racism as "...a highly organized system of 'race'-based group privilege that operates at every level of society and is held together by a sophisticated ideology of color/'race' supremacy. Sellers and Shelton (2003) found that a relationship between racial discrimination and emotional distress was moderated by racial ideology and public regard beliefs. That is, racial centrality appears to promote the degree of discrimination African American young adults perceive whereas racial ideology may buffer the detrimental emotional effects of that discrimination. Racist systems include, but cannot be reduced to, racial bigotry,".[32]
Some sociologists have also argued, with reference to the USA and elsewhere, that forms of racism have in many instances mutated from more blatant expressions hereof into more covert kinds (albeit that blatant forms of hatred and discrimination still endure). The "newer" (more hidden and less easily detectable) forms of racism—which can be considered as embedded in social processes and structures—are more difficult to explore as well as challenge. It has been suggested that, while in many countries overt and explicit racism has become increasingly taboo, even in those who display egalitarian explicit attitudes, an implicit or aversive racism is still maintained subconsciously.
Xenophobia
Main article: Xenophobia
Dictionary definitions of xenophobia include: intense or irrational dislike or fear of people from other countries (Oxford Dictionaries),[33] unreasonable fear and hatred of strangers or foreigners or of anything that is strange or foreign (Merriam-Webster)[34] The Dictionary of Psychology defines it as "a fear of strangers".[35]
Supremacism
Main article: Supremacism
Centuries of European colonialism of the Americas, Africa and Asia was often justified by white supremacist attitudes.[36] During the early 20th century, the phrase "The White Man's Burden" was widely used to justify imperialist policy as a noble enterprise.[37][38]
A rally against school integration in 1959.
Segregationism
Main article: Racial segregation
Racial segregation is the separation of humans into racial groups in daily life. It may apply to activities such as eating in a restaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a bath room, attending school, going to the movies, or in the rental or purchase of a home.[39] Segregation is generally outlawed, but may exist through social norms, even when there is no strong individual preference for it, as suggested by Thomas Schelling's models of segregation and subsequent work.
Types
Racial discrimination
Racial discrimination refers to the separation of people through a process of social division into categories not necessarily related to races for purposes of differential treatment. Racial segregation policies may formalize it, but it is also often exerted without being legalized. Researchers Marianne Bertrand and Sendhil Mullainathan, at the University of Chicago and MIT found in a 2004 study that there was widespread discrimination in the workplace against job applicants whose names were merely perceived as "sounding black". These applicants were 50% less likely than candidates perceived as having "white-sounding names" to receive callbacks for interviews. Devah Pager, a sociologist at Princeton University, sent matched pairs of applicants to apply for jobs in Milwaukee and New York City, finding that black applicants received callbacks or job offers at half the rate of equally qualified whites.[40][41] In contrast, institutions and courts have upheld discrimination against whites when it is done to promote a diverse work or educational environment, even when it was shown to be to the detriment of qualified applicants.[42][43] The researchers view these results as strong evidence of unconscious biases rooted in the United States' long history of discrimination (e.g., Jim Crow laws, etc.)[44]
Institutional
Further information: Institutional racism, State racism, Affirmative action, Racial profiling and Racism by country
Students protesting against racial quotas in Brazil. The sign reads: "Want a place? Pass the entry exam!"
Institutional racism (also known as structural racism, state racism or systemic racism) is racial discrimination by governments, corporations, religions, or educational institutions or other large organizations with the power to influence the lives of many individuals. Stokely Carmichael is credited for coining the phrase institutional racism in the late 1960s. He defined the term as "the collective failure of an organization to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin".[45]
Maulana Karenga argued that racism constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion and human possibility, and that the effects of racism were "the morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among peoples."[46]
Economic
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2010)
Historical economic or social disparity is alleged to be a form of discrimination caused by past racism and historical reasons, affecting the present generation through deficits in the formal education and kinds of preparation in previous generations, and through primarily unconscious racist attitudes and actions on members of the general population.
A hypothesis embraced by classical economists is that competition in a capitalist economy decreases the impact of discrimination. The thinking behind the hypothesis is that discrimination imposes a cost on the employer, and thus a profit-driven employer will avoid racist hiring policies.
Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses, Germany, 1933
Although a capitalist economy would avoid discrimination in order to avoid extra cost, this can be avoided in other ways. A capitalist company, for example, may use racist hiring policies as it deviates towards the "cultural norm". For example, in a predominantly white society, hiring a person of colour into a position of management may then cause disputes, and damage communications between other employers. Thus, the company would be economically put in a deficit because of the discrimination of other companies, as they invoke discrimination and isolate that company. Although this may be a radical, over exaggerated point of view, it portrays how pervasive racism is and how a company may sometimes deviate towards racist hiring policies in order to not be isolated, thus preventing the company from going into an economic deficit. (Burton 2009:1)
For decades, African American farmers said they were unjustly being denied farm loans or subjected to longer waits for loan approval because of racism,[47] and accused the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) of not responding to their complaints.[48] In 2011, Bank of America agreed to pay $335 million to settle a federal government claim that its mortgage division, Countrywide Financial, discriminated against black and Hispanic homebuyers.[49]
During the Spanish colonial period, Spaniards developed a complex caste system based on race, which was used for social control and which also determined a person's importance in society.[50] While many Latin American countries have long since rendered the system officially illegal through legislation, usually at the time of their independence, prejudice based on degrees of perceived racial distance from European ancestry combined with one's socioeconomic status remain, an echo of the colonial caste system. Almost uniformly, people who are darker-skinned and of indigenous descent make up the peasantry and working classes, while lighter-skinned, Spanish-descent Latin Americans are in the ruling elite.[51][52]
Declarations and international law against racial discrimination
In 1919, a proposal to include a racial equality provision in the Covenant of the League of Nations was supported by a majority, but not adopted in the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. In 1943, Japan and its allies declared work for the abolition of racial discrimination to be their aim at the Greater East Asia Conference.[53] Article 1 of the 1945 UN Charter includes "promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race" as UN purpose.
In 1950, UNESCO suggested in The Race Question —a statement signed by 21 scholars such as Ashley Montagu, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Gunnar Myrdal, Julian Huxley, etc. — to "drop the term race altogether and instead speak of ethnic groups". The statement condemned scientific racism theories that had played a role in the Holocaust. It aimed both at debunking scientific racist theories, by popularizing modern knowledge concerning "the race question," and morally condemned racism as contrary to the philosophy of the Enlightenment and its assumption of equal rights for all. Along with Myrdal's An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (1944), The Race Question influenced the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court desegregation decision in "Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka".[54] Also in 1950, the European Convention on Human Rights was adopted, widely used on racial discrimination issues.[55]
The United Nations use the definition of racial discrimination laid out in the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, adopted in 1966:
… any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, color, descent, or national or ethnic origin that has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.(Part 1 of Article 1 of the U.N. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination)[56]
In 2001, the European Union explicitly banned racism, along with many other forms of social discrimination, in the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, the legal effect of which, if any, would necessarily be limited to Institutions of the European Union: "Article 21 of the charter prohibits discrimination on any ground such as race, color, ethnic or social origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, political or any other opinion, membership of a national minority, property, disability, age or sexual orientation and also discrimination on the grounds of nationality."[57]
Symbolic/Modern
Main article: Symbolic racism
Some scholars argue that in the US earlier violent and aggressive forms of racism have evolved into a more subtle form of prejudice in the late 20th century. This new form of racism is sometimes referred to as "modern racism" and characterized by outwardly acting unprejudiced while inwardly maintaining prejudiced attitudes, and displaying subtle prejudist behaviors such as actions informed by attributing qualities to others based on racial stereotypes, and evaluating the same behavior differently based on the race of the person being evaluated.[58] This view is based on studies of prejudice and discriminatory behavior, where some people will act ambivalently towards black people, with positive reactions in certain, more public contexts, but more negative views and expressions in more private contexts. This ambivalence may also be visible for example in hiring decisions where job candidates that are otherwise positively evaluated may be unconsciously disfavored by employers in the final decision because of their race.[59][60][61] Some scholars consider modern racism to be characterized by an explicit rejection of stereotypes, combined with resistance to changing structures of discrimination for reasons that are ostensibly non-racial, an idiology that considers opportunity at a purely individual basis denying the relevance of race in determining individual opportunities, and the exhibition of indirect forms of micro-aggression and/or avoidance towards people of other races.[62]
Ideology
A racist political campaign poster from the 1866 Pennsylvania gubernatorial election
A sign on a racially segregated beach during the Apartheid in South Africa
As an ideology, racism existed during the 19th century as "scientific racism", which attempted to provide a racial classification of humanity.[63] Johann Blumenbach in 1775, advocating polygenism, divided the world's population into five groups according to skin colour (Caucasians, Mongols, etc.). The archetypical form of racism is, perhaps, found with the polygenist Christoph Meiners. He split mankind into two divisions which he labeled the "beautiful White race" and the "ugly Black race". In Meiners book The Outline of History of Mankind he claimed that a main characteristic of race is either beauty or ugliness. He viewed only the white race as beautiful. He considered ugly races as inferior, immoral and animal like.
Anders Retzius next disproved that Blumenbach's polygenism had any fundamental merit, in demonstrating that neither Europeans nor different nations are one "pure race", but of mixed origins. While discredited, derivations of Blumenbach's taxonomy are still widely used for classification of the population in USA. H. P. Steensby, while strongly emphasising that all humans today are of mixed origins, in 1907 claimed that the origins of human differences must be traced extraordinarily far back in time, and conjectured that the "purest race" today would be the Australian Aboriginals.[64]
After the rejection of polygenism as well as the widespread racist and nationalist violence of the 1930s and 1940s, scientific racism fell strongly out of favour, but the origins of fundamental human and societal differences are still researched within academia, in fields such as human genetics including paleogenetics, social anthropology, comparative politics, history of religions, history of ideas, prehistory, history, ethics, and psychiatry. All reject Meiners' blunt racism. Outside USA, there is widespread rejection of any methodology based on anything similar to Blumenbach's races. It is more unclear to which extent ethnic and national stereotypes are accepted, and when.
Although racist ideologies have been widely discredited after World War II and the Holocaust, racism and racial discrimination have remained widespread around the world. Some examples of this in present day are statistics including, but not limited to, the racial breakdown of the prison population versus the national population, physical abilities and mental ability statistics, and other data gathered by scientific groups. While these statistics may be accurate, and can show trends, it's inappropriate in most countries to assume that because a particular race has a high crime or low literacy rate, that the entire race of people are inherent criminals, or inherently unintelligent.
It was already noted by DuBois that, in making the difference between races, it is not race that we think about, but culture: "...a common history, common laws and religion, similar habits of thought and a conscious striving together for certain ideals of life".[65] Late 19th century nationalists were the first to embrace contemporary discourses on "race", ethnicity and "survival of the fittest" to shape new nationalist doctrines. Ultimately, race came to represent not only the most important traits of the human body, but was also regarded as decisively shaping the character and personality of the nation.[66]
According to this view, culture is the physical manifestation created by ethnic groupings, as such fully determined by racial characteristics. Culture and race became considered intertwined and dependent upon each other, sometimes even to the extent of including nationality or language to the set of definition. Pureness of race tended to be related to rather superficial characteristics that were easily addressed and advertised, such as blondness. Racial qualities tended to be related to nationality and language rather than the actual geographic distribution of racial characteristics. In the case of Nordicism, the denomination "Germanic" became virtually equivalent to superiority of race.
Bolstered by some nationalist and ethnocentric values and achievements of choice, this concept of racial superiority evolved to distinguish from other cultures, that were considered inferior or impure. This emphasis on culture corresponds to the modern mainstream definition of racism: "Racism does not originate from the existence of 'races'. It creates them through a process of social division into categories: anybody can be racialised, independently of their somatic, cultural, religious differences."[67]
This definition explicitly ignores the biological concept of race, still subject to scientific debate. In the words of David C. Rowe "A racial concept, although sometimes in the guise of another name, will remain in use in biology and in other fields because scientists, as well as lay persons, are fascinated by human diversity, some of which is captured by race."[68]
Until recently, this racist abuse of physical anthropology has been politically exploited. Apart from being unscientific, racial prejudice became subject to international legislation. For instance, the Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on November 20, 1963, address racial prejudice explicitly next to discrimination for reasons of race, colour or ethnic origin (Article I).[69]
Racism has been a motivating factor in social discrimination, racial segregation, hate speech and violence (such as pogroms, genocides and ethnic cleansings). Despite the persistence of racial stereotypes, humor and epithets in much everyday language, racial discrimination is illegal in many countries.
Ironically, anti-racism has also become a political instrument of abuse. In a reversal of values, anti-racism is being propagated by despots in the service of obscurantism and the suppression of women. Philosopher Pascal Bruckner claimed that "Anti-racism in the UN has become the ideology of totalitarian regimes who use it in their own interests."[70]
Ethnic nationalism
Further information: Ethnic nationalism and Romantic nationalism
After the Napoleonic Wars, Europe was confronted with the new "nationalities question," leading to reconfigurations of the European map, on which the frontiers between the states had been delimited during the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. Nationalism had made its first appearance with the invention of the levée en masse by the French revolutionaries, thus inventing mass conscription in order to be able to defend the newly founded Republic against the Ancien Régime order represented by the European monarchies. This led to the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802) and then to the Napoleonic conquests, and to the subsequent European-wide debates on the concepts and realities of nations, and in particular of nation-states. The Westphalia Treaty had divided Europe into various empires and kingdoms (Ottoman Empire, Holy Roman Empire, Swedish Empire, Kingdom of France, etc.), and for centuries wars were waged between princes (Kabinettskriege in German).
Eugène Delacroix's Scene of the massacre at Chios (1824); Greek families awaiting death or slavery
Modern nation-states appeared in the wake of the French Revolution, with the formation of patriotic sentiments for the first time in Spain during the Peninsula War (1808–1813 – known in Spain as the Independence War). Despite the restoration of the previous order with the 1815 Congress of Vienna, the "nationalities question" became the main problem of Europe during the Industrial Era, leading in particular to the 1848 Revolutions, the Italian unification completed during the 1871 Franco-Prussian War, which itself culminated in the proclamation of the German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles, thus achieving the German unification.
Meanwhile, the Ottoman Empire, the "sick man of Europe", was confronted with endless nationalist movements, which, along with the dissolving of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire, would lead to the creation after World War I of the various nation-states of the Balkans, with "national minorities" in their borders.[71] Ethnic nationalism, which advocated the belief in a hereditary membership of the nation, made its appearance in the historical context surrounding the creation of the modern nation-states.
One of its main influences was the Romantic nationalist movement at the turn of the 19th century, represented by figures such as Johann Herder (1744–1803), Johan Fichte (1762–1814) in the Addresses to the German Nation (1808), Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831), or also, in France, Jules Michelet (1798–1874). It was opposed to liberal nationalism, represented by authors such as Ernest Renan (1823–1892), who conceived of the nation as a community, which, instead of being based on the Volk ethnic group and on a specific, common language, was founded on the subjective will to live together ("the nation is a daily plebiscite", 1882) or also John Stuart Mill (1806–1873).[72]
A caricature from the German antisemitic Der Stürmer, around Christmas 1929. It urged Germans to avoid buying from Jewish shops.
Ethnic nationalism blended with scientific racist discourses, as well as with "continental imperialist" (Hannah Arendt, 1951[73]) discourses, for example in the pan-Germanism discourses, which postulated the racial superiority of the German Volk. The Pan-German League (Alldeutscher Verband), created in 1891, promoted German imperialism, "racial hygiene" and was opposed to intermarriage with Jews. Another popular current, the Völkisch movement, was also an important proponent of the German ethnic nationalist discourse, which combined with modern antisemitism. Members of the Völkisch movement, in particular the Thule Society, would participate in the founding of the German Workers' Party (DAP) in Munich in 1918, the predecessor of the NSDAP Nazi party. Pan-Germanism and played a decisive role in the interwar period of the 1920s–1930s.[73]
These currents began to associate the idea of the nation with the biological concept of a "master race" (often the "Aryan race" or "Nordic race") issued from the scientific racist discourse. They conflated nationalities with ethnic groups, called "races", in a radical distinction from previous racial discourses that posited the existence of a "race struggle" inside the nation and the state itself. Furthermore, they believed that political boundaries should mirror these alleged racial and ethnic groups, thus justifying ethnic cleansing in order to achieve "racial purity" and also to achieve ethnic homogeneity in the nation-state.
Such racist discourses, combined with nationalism, were not, however, limited to pan-Germanism. In France, the transition from Republican, liberal nationalism, to ethnic nationalism, which made nationalism a characteristic of far-right movements in France, took place during the Dreyfus Affair at the end of the 19th century. During several years, a nation-wide crisis affected French society, concerning the alleged treason of Alfred Dreyfus, a French Jewish military officer. The country polarized itself into two opposite camps, one represented by Émile Zola, who wrote J'accuse in defense of Alfred Dreyfus, and the other represented by the nationalist poet, Maurice Barrès (1862–1923), one of the founders of the ethnic nationalist discourse in France.[74] At the same time, Charles Maurras (1868–1952), founder of the monarchist Action française movement, theorized the "anti-France," composed of the "four confederate states of Protestants, Jews, Freemasons and foreigners" (his actual word for the latter being the pejorative métèques). Indeed, to him the first three were all "internal foreigners", who threatened the ethnic unity of the French people.
Ethnic conflicts
Further information: Ethnicity
Debates over the origins of racism often suffer from a lack of clarity over the term. Many use the term "racism" to refer to more general phenomena, such as xenophobia and ethnocentrism, although scholars attempt to clearly distinguish those phenomena from racism as an ideology or from scientific racism, which has little to do with ordinary xenophobia. Others conflate recent forms of racism with earlier forms of ethnic and national conflict. In most cases, ethno-national conflict seems to owe itself to conflict over land and strategic resources. In some cases, ethnicity and nationalism were harnessed to rally combatants in wars between great religious empires (for example, the Muslim Turks and the Catholic Austro-Hungarians).
Picture showing Armenians killed during the Armenian Genocide of 1915.
Notions of race and racism often have played central roles in such ethnic conflicts. Throughout history, when an adversary is identified as "other" based on notions of race or ethnicity (in particular when "other" is construed to mean "inferior"), the means employed by the self-presumed "superior" party to appropriate territory, human chattel, or material wealth often have been more ruthless, more brutal, and less constrained by moral or ethical considerations. According to historian Daniel Richter, Pontiac's Rebellion saw the emergence on both sides of the conflict of "the novel idea that all Native people were 'Indians,' that all Euro-Americans were 'Whites,' and that all on one side must unite to destroy the other." [75] Basil Davidson insists in his documentary, Africa: Different but Equal, that racism, in fact, only just recently surfaced—as late as the 19th century, due to the need for a justification for slavery in the Americas.
The idea of slavery as an "equal-opportunity employer" was denounced with the introduction of Christian theory in the West. Maintaining that Africans were "subhuman" was the only loophole in the then accepted law that "men are created equal" that would allow for the sustenance of the Triangular Trade. New peoples in the Americas, possible slaves, were encountered, fought, and ultimately subdued, but, then, due to European diseases, their populations drastically decreased. Through both influences, theories about "race" developed, and these helped many to justify the differences in position and treatment of people whom they categorized as belonging to different races (see Eric Wolf's Europe and the People without History).
Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda argued that, during the Valladolid controversy in the middle of the 16th century, the Native Americans were natural slaves because they had no souls. In Asia, the Chinese and Japanese Empires were both strong colonial powers, with the Chinese making colonies and vassal states of much of East Asia throughout history, and the Japanese doing the same in the 19th–20th centuries. In both cases, the Asian imperial powers believed they were ethnically and racially preferenced too.
Academic variants
Drawings from Josiah C. Nott and George Gliddon's Indigenous races of the earth (1857), which suggested black people ranked between white people and chimpanzees in terms of intelligence.
Owen 'Alik Shahadah comments on this racism by stating: "Historically Africans are made to sway like leaves on the wind, impervious and indifferent to any form of civilization, a people absent from scientific discovery, philosophy or the higher arts. We are left to believe that almost nothing can come out of Africa, other than raw material."[76]
Scottish philosopher and economist David Hume said, "I am apt to suspect the Negroes to be naturally inferior to the Whites. There scarcely ever was a civilised nation of that complexion, nor even any individual, eminent either in action or in speculation. No ingenious manufacture among them, no arts, no sciences."[77] German philosopher Immanuel Kant stated: "The yellow Indians do have a meagre talent. The Negroes are far below them, and at the lowest point are a part of the American people."[78]
In the 19th century, the German philosopher, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, declared that "Africa is no historical part of the world." Hegel further claimed that blacks had no "sense of personality; their spirit sleeps, remains sunk in itself, makes no advance, and thus parallels the compact, undifferentiated mass of the African continent" (On Blackness Without Blacks: Essays on the Image of the Black in Germany, Boston: C.W. Hall, 1982, p. 94).
Fewer than 30 years before Nazi Germany instigated World War II, the Austrian, Otto Weininger, claimed: "A genius has perhaps scarcely ever appeared amongst the negroes, and the standard of their morality is almost universally so low that it is beginning to be acknowledged in America that their emancipation was an act of imprudence" (Sex and Character, New York: G.P. Putnam, 1906, p. 302).
The German conservative, Oswald Spengler, remarked on what he perceived as the culturally degrading influence of Africans in modern Western culture: in The Hour of Decision Spengler denounced "the 'happy ending' of an empty existence, the boredom of which has brought to jazz music and Negro dancing to perform the Death March for a great Culture" (The Hour of Decision, pp. 227–228). During the Nazi era, German scientists rearranged academia to support claims of a grand "Aryan" agent behind the splendors of all human civilizations, including India and Ancient Egypt.[78]
People Show (a human zoo) (Völkerschau) in Stuttgart (Germany) in 1928.
Scientific variants
Main article: Scientific racism
Further information: Unilineal evolution
The modern biological definition of race developed in the 19th century with scientific racist theories. The term scientific racism refers to the use of science to justify and support racist beliefs, which goes back to the early 18th century, though it gained most of its influence in the mid-19th century, during the New Imperialism period. Also known as academic racism, such theories first needed to overcome the Church's resistance to positivist accounts of history and its support of monogenism, the concept that all human beings were originated from the same ancestors, in accordance with creationist accounts of history.
These racist theories put forth on scientific hypothesis were combined with unilineal theories of social progress, which postulated the superiority of the European civilization over the rest of the world. Furthermore, they frequently made use of the idea of "survival of the fittest", a term coined by Herbert Spencer in 1864, associated with ideas of competition, which were named social Darwinism in the 1940s. Charles Darwin himself opposed the idea of rigid racial differences in The Descent of Man (1871) in which he argued that humans were all of one species, sharing common descent. He recognised racial differences as varieties of humanity, and emphasised the close similarities between people of all races in mental faculties, tastes, dispositions and habits, while still contrasting the culture of the "lowest savages" with European civilization.[79][80]
At the end of the 19th century, proponents of scientific racism intertwined themselves with eugenics discourses of "degeneration of the race" and "blood heredity." Henceforth, scientific racist discourses could be defined as the combination of polygenism, unilinealism, social Darwinism and eugenism. They found their scientific legitimacy on physical anthropology, anthropometry, craniometry, phrenology, physiognomy, and others now discredited disciplines in order to formulate racist prejudices.
Before being disqualified in the 20th century by the American school of cultural anthropology (Franz Boas, etc.), the British school of social anthropology (Bronislaw Malinowski, Alfred Radcliffe-Brown, etc.), the French school of ethnology (Claude Lévi-Strauss, etc.), as well as the discovery of the neo-Darwinian synthesis, such sciences, in particular anthropometry, were used to deduce behaviours and psychological characteristics from outward, physical appearances.
The neo-Darwinian synthesis, first developed in the 1930s, eventually led to a gene-centered view of evolution in the 1960s. According to the Human Genome Project, the most complete mapping of human DNA to date indicates that there is no clear genetic basis to racial groups. While some genes are more common in certain populations, there are no genes that exist in all members of one population and no members of any other.[81]
Heredity and eugenics
Further information: Eugenics
The first theory of eugenics was developed in 1869 by Francis Galton (1822–1911), who used the then popular concept of degeneration. He applied statistics to study human differences and the alleged "inheritance of intelligence", foreshadowing future uses of "intelligence testing" by the anthropometry school. Such theories were vividly described by the writer Émile Zola (1840–1902), who started publishing in 1871 a twenty-novel cycle, Les Rougon-Macquart, where he linked heredity to behavior. Thus, Zola described the high-born Rougons as those involved in politics (Son Excellence Eugène Rougon) and medicine (Le Docteur Pascal) and the low-born Macquarts as those fatally falling into alcoholism (L'Assommoir), prostitution (Nana), and homicide (La Bête humaine).
During the rise of Nazism in Germany, some scientists in Western nations worked to debunk the regime's racial theories. A few argued against racist ideologies and discrimination, even if they believed in the alleged existence of biological races. However, in the fields of anthropology and biology, these were minority positions until the mid-20th century.[82] According to the 1950 UNESCO statement, The Race Question, an international project to debunk racist theories had been attempted in the mid-1930s. However, this project had been abandoned. Thus, in 1950, UNESCO declared that it had resumed:
up again, after a lapse of fifteen years, a project that the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation has wished to carry through but that it had to abandon in deference to the appeasement policy of the pre-war period. The race question had become one of the pivots of Nazi ideology and policy. Masaryk and Beneš took the initiative of calling for a conference to re-establish in the minds and consciences of men everywhere the truth about race... Nazi propaganda was able to continue its baleful work unopposed by the authority of an international organisation.
The Third Reich's racial policies, its eugenics programs and the extermination of Jews in the Holocaust, as well as Romani people in the Porrajmos (the Romani Holocaust) and others minorities led to a change in opinions about scientific research into race after the war. Changes within scientific disciplines, such as the rise of the Boasian school of anthropology in the United States contributed to this shift. These theories were strongly denounced in the 1950 UNESCO statement, signed by internationally renowned scholars, and titled The Race Question.
Polygenism and racial typologies
Further information: Polygenism and Typology (anthropology)
Madison Grant's map, from 1916, charting the "present distribution of European races", with the Nordics in red, the Alpines in green, and the Mediterraneans in yellow.
Works such as Arthur de Gobineau's An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853–1855) may be considered as one of the first theorizations of this new racism, founded on an essentialist notion of race, which opposed the former racial discourse, of Boulainvilliers for example, which saw in races a fundamentally historical reality, which changed over time. Gobineau, thus, attempted to frame racism within the terms of biological differences among humans, giving it the legitimacy of biology. He was one of the first theorists to postulate polygenism, stating that there were, at the origins of the world, various discrete "races."
Gobineau's theories would be expanded, in France, by Georges Vacher de Lapouge (1854–1936)'s typology of races, who published in 1899 The Aryan and his Social Role, in which he claimed that the white, "Aryan race", "dolichocephalic", was opposed to the "brachycephalic" race, of whom the "Jew" was the archetype. Vacher de Lapouge thus created a hierarchical classification of races, in which he identified the "Homo europaeus (Teutonic, Protestant, etc.), the "Homo alpinus" (Auvergnat, Turkish, etc.), and finally the "Homo mediterraneus" (Neapolitan, Andalus, etc.) He assimilated races and social classes, considering that the French upper class was a representation of the Homo europaeus, while the lower class represented the Homo alpinus. Applying Galton's eugenics to his theory of races, Vacher de Lapouge's "selectionism" aimed first at achieving the annihilation of trade unionists, considered to be a "degenerate"; second, creating types of man each destined to one end, in order to prevent any contestation of labour conditions. His "anthroposociology" thus aimed at blocking social conflict by establishing a fixed, hierarchical social order[83]
The same year, William Z. Ripley used identical racial classification in The Races of Europe (1899), which would have a great influence in the United States. Other scientific authors include H.S. Chamberlain at the end of the 19th century (a British citizen who naturalized himself as German because of his admiration for the "Aryan race") and Madison Grant, a eugenicist and author of The Passing of the Great Race (1916). Madison Grant provided statistics for the Immigration Act of 1924, which severely restricted immigration of Jews, Slavs, and southern Europeans, who were subsequently hindered in seeking to escape Nazi Germany.[84]
Human zoos
Human zoos (called "People Shows"), were an important means of bolstering popular racism by connecting it to scientific racism: they were both objects of public curiosity and of anthropology and anthropometry.[85][86] Joice Heth, an African American slave, was displayed by P.T. Barnum in 1836, a few years after the exhibition of Saartjie Baartman, the "Hottentot Venus", in England. Such exhibitions became common in the New Imperialism period, and remained so until World War II. Carl Hagenbeck, inventor of the modern zoos, exhibited animals beside humans who were considered "savages".[87][88]
Congolese pygmy Ota Benga was displayed in 1906 by eugenicist Madison Grant, head of the Bronx Zoo, as an attempt to illustrate the "missing link" between humans and orangutans: thus, racism was tied to Darwinism, creating a social Darwinist ideology that tried to ground itself in Darwin's scientific discoveries. The 1931 Paris Colonial Exhibition displayed Kanaks from New Caledonia.[89] A "Congolese village" was on display as late as 1958 at the Brussels' World Fair.
Evolutionary theories about the origins of racism
See also: Ethnocentrism
Sociological model of ethnic and racial conflict.
Biologists John Tooby and Leda Cosmides were puzzled by the fact that in the US race is one of the three characteristics most often used in brief descriptions of individuals (the others are age and sex). They reasoned that natural selection would not have favoured the evolution of an instinct for using race as a classification, because for most of human history, humans almost never encountered members of other races. Tooby and Cosmides hypothesized that modern people use race as a proxy (rough-and-ready indicator) for coalition membership, since a better-than-random guess about "which side" another person is on will be helpful if one does not actually know in advance.
Their colleague Robert Kurzban designed an experiment whose results appeared to support this hypothesis. Using the Memory confusion protocol, they presented subjects with pictures of individuals and sentences, allegedly spoken by these individuals, which presented two sides of a debate. The errors that the subjects made in recalling who said what indicated that they sometimes misattributed a statement to a speaker of the same race as the "correct" speaker, although they also sometimes misattributed a statement to a speaker "on the same side" as the "correct" speaker. In a second run of the experiment, the team also distinguished the "sides" in the debate by clothing of similar colors; and in this case the effect of racial similarity in causing mistakes almost vanished, being replaced by the color of their clothing. In other words, the first group of subjects, with no clues from clothing, used race as a visual guide to guessing who was on which side of the debate; the second group of subjects used the clothing color as their main visual clue, and the effect of race became very small. [90]
Some research suggests that ethnocentric thinking may have actually contributed to the development of cooperation. Political scientists Ross Hammond and Robert Axelrod created a computer simulation wherein virtual individuals were randomly assigned one of a variety of skin colors, and then one of a variety of trading strategies: be color-blind, favor those of your own color, or favor those of other colors. They found that the ethnocentric individuals clustered together, then grew until all the non-ethnocentric individuals were wiped out.[91]
In The Selfish Gene, evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins writes that "Blood-feuds and inter-clan warfare are easily interpretable in terms of Hamilton's genetic theory." Dawkins writes that racial prejudice, while not evolutionarily adaptive, "could be interpreted as an irrational generalization of a kin-selected tendency to identify with individuals physically resembling oneself, and to be nasty to individuals different in appearance".[92] Simulation-based experiments in evolutionary game theory have attempted to provide an explanation for the selection of ethnocentric-strategy phenotypes.[93]
As state-sponsored activity
Main articles: Nazism and race, Racial policy of Nazi Germany, Racism in Germany, Generalplan Ost, Eugenics in Showa Japan, Apartheid in South Africa, Racial segregation in the United States, Ketuanan Melayu and Anti-Chinese legislation in Indonesia
Separate "white" and "colored" entrances to a cafe in North Carolina, 1940
State racism—that is, institutions and practices of a nation-state that are grounded in racist ideology—has played a major role in all instances of settler colonialism, from the United States to Australia. It also played a prominent role in the Nazi German regime and fascist regimes in Europe, and in the first part of Japan's Showa period. These governments advocated and implemented policies that were racist, xenophobic and, in case of Nazism, genocidal.[94][95] The politics of Zimbabwe promote discrimination against whites, in an effort to ethnically cleanse the country.[96]
Legislative state racism is known to have been enforced by the National Party of South Africa during their Apartheid regime between 1948 and 1994. Here a series of Apartheid legislation in South Africa was passed through the legal systems to make it legal for white South Africans to have rights which were superior to those of non-white South Africans. Non-white South Africans were not allowed involvement in any governing matters, including voting; access to quality healthcare; the provision of basic services, including clean water; electricity; as well as access to adequate schooling. Non-white South Africans were also prevented from accessing certain public areas, using certain public transportation and were required to live only in certain designated areas. Non-white South Africans were taxed differently from white South Africans and were required to carry on them at all times additional documentation, which later became known as "dom passes", to certify their non-white South African citizenship. All of these legislative racial laws were abolished through a series of equal human rights laws passed at the end of Apartheid in the early 1990s.
State racism contributed as well to the formation of the Dominican Republic's identity [97] and violent actions encouraged by Dominican governmental xenophobia against Haitians and "Haitian looking" people. Currently the Dominican Republic employs a de facto system of separatism for children and grandchildren of Haitians and black Dominicans, denying them birth certificates, education and access to health care.[98]
In history
In Antiquity
Edith Sanders in 1969 cited the Babylonian Talmud, which divides mankind between the three sons of Noah, stating that "the descendants of Ham are cursed by being black, and [it] depicts Ham as a sinful man and his progeny as degenerates."[99] Although the curse of Ham has been used as an explanation for the origin of dark skinned people since the 3rd century A.D., David M. Goldenberg (2005) writes that this was based on a theory that different climates and sun exposure effect semen composition and through this the physical composition of descendants (which is rather unlike modern hereditary understandings of race). Furthermore the earliest appearance of dark skin as a punishment for the descendants of Ham directly related to "Black Africans" does not appear until the 9th or 10th century (in the Pirqei de-Rabbenu ha-Qadosh). Earlier sources assign the punishment of blackness to Ham himself and make no mention of the people of Kush or their skin being a curse. As well, Goldenberg goes on to explain that the earlier (3rd century) sources understood "dark skin" to include not only sub-Saharan black Africa but also:
...the Copts, Fezzan, Zaghawa, Brbr, Indians, Arabs, the people of Marw, the inhabitants of the islands in the Indian Ocean, even the Chinese, as well as the Ethiopians (Habash), Zanj, Buja, and Nubians. In other words, "the coloured people of the world."[100]
Bernard Lewis has cited the Greek philosopher Aristotle who, in his discussion of slavery, stated that while Greeks are free by nature, 'barbarians' (non-Greeks) are slaves by nature, in that it is in their nature to be more willing to submit to despotic government.[101] Though Aristotle does not specify any particular races, he argues that people from outside Greece are more prone to the burden of slavery than those from Greece.[102] Such proto-racism and ethnocentrism must be looked at within context, as a modern understanding of racism based on hereditary inferiority (modern racism based in: eugenics and scientific racism) was not yet developed and it is unclear whether Aristotle believed the natural inferiority of Barbarians was caused by environment and climate (like many of his contemporaries) or by birth.[103] While Aristotle makes remarks about the most natural slaves being those with strong bodies and slave souls (unfit for rule, unintelligent) which would seem to imply a physical basis for discrimination, he also explicitly states that the right kind of souls and bodies don't always go together, implying that the greatest determinate for inferiority and natural slaves versus natural masters is the soul, not the body.[104] This proto-racism is seen as an important precursor to modern racism by classicist Benjamin Isaac.
Historian Dante A. Puzzo, in his discussion of Aristotle, racism, and the ancient world writes that:
Racism rests on two basic assumptions: that a correlation exists between physical characteristics and moral qualities; that mankind is divisible into superior and inferior stocks. Racism, thus defined, is a modern conception, for prior to the XVIth century there was virtually nothing in the life and thought of the West that can be described as racist. To prevent misunderstanding a clear distinction must be made between racism and ethnocentrism [...] The Ancient Hebrews, in referring to all who were not Hebrews as Gentiles, were indulging in ethnocentrism, not in racism. [...] So it was with the Hellenes who denominated all non-Hellenes——whether the wild Scythians or the Egyptians whom they acknowledged as their mentors in the arts if civilization——Barbarians, the term denoting that which was strange or foreign.[105]
Middle Ages and Renaissance
Further information: Limpieza de sangre
In the Middle East and North Africa region, racist opinions were expressed within the works of some of its historians and geographers[106] including Al-Muqaddasi, Al-Jahiz, Al-Masudi, Abu Rayhan Biruni, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, and Ibn Qutaybah.[106] In the 14th century CE, the Tunisian scholar Ibn Khaldun wrote:
- :"beyond [known peoples of black West Africa] to the south there is no civilization in the proper sense. There are only humans who are closer to dumb animals than to rational beings. They live in thickets and caves, and eat herbs and unprepared grain. They frequently eat each other. They cannot be considered human beings." "Therefore, the Negro nations are, as a rule, submissive to slavery, because (Negroes) have little that is (essentially) human and possess attributes that are quite similar to those of dumb animals, as we have stated."[106][107]
Though the Qur'an expresses no racial prejudice, such prejudices later developed among Arabs for a variety of reasons:[101] their extensive conquests and slave trade; the influence of Aristotelian ideas regarding slavery, which some Muslim philosophers directed towards Zanj (East African) and Turkic peoples;[101] and the influence of Judeo-Christian ideas regarding divisions among humankind.[108] In response to such views, the Afro-Arab author Al-Jahiz, himself having a Zanj grandfather, wrote a book entitled Superiority Of The Blacks To The Whites,[109] and explained why the Zanj were black in terms of environmental determinism in the "On the Zanj" chapter of The Essays.[110] By the 14th century, a significant number of slaves came from sub-Saharan Africa, leading to the likes of Egyptian historian Al-Abshibi (1388–1446) writing: "It is said that when the [black] slave is sated, he fornicates, when he is hungry, he steals."[111] According to J. Philippe Rushton, Arab relations with blacks whom the Muslims had dealt as slave traders for over 1,000 years could be summed up as follows:
13th-century slave market in Yemen. Yemen officially abolished slavery in 1962.[112]
It should be noted that ethnic prejudice among some elite Arabs was not limited to darker-skinned black people, but was also directed towards fairer-skinned "ruddy people" (including Persians, Turks, Caucasians and Europeans), while Arabs referred to themselves as "swarthy people".[113]
However, the Umayyad Caliphate invaded Hispania and founded the advanced civilization of Al-Andalus, where an era of religious tolerance and a Golden age of Jewish culture lasted for six centuries.[114] It was followed by a violent Reconquista under the Catholic monarchs Ferdinand V and Isabella I. The Catholic Spaniards then formulated the Cleanliness of blood doctrine. It was during this time in history that the Western concept of aristocratic "blue blood" emerged in a highly racialized and implicitly white supremacist context, as author Robert Lacey explains:
It was the Spaniards who gave the world the notion that an aristocrat's blood is not red but blue. The Spanish nobility started taking shape around the ninth century in classic military fashion, occupying land as warriors on horseback. They were to continue the process for more than five hundred years, clawing back sections of the peninsula from its Moorish occupiers, and a nobleman demonstrated his pedigree by holding up his sword arm to display the filigree of blue-blooded veins beneath his pale skin—proof that his birth had not been contaminated by the dark-skinned enemy. Sangre azul, blue blood, was thus a euphemism for being a white man—Spain's own particular reminder that the refined footsteps of the aristocracy through history carry the rather less refined spoor of racism.[115]
Following the expulsion of most Sephardic Jews from the Iberian peninsula, the remaining Jews and Muslims were forced to convert to Roman Catholicism, becoming "New Christians" which were despised and discriminated by the "Old Christians". An Inquisition was carried out by members of the Dominican Order in order to weed out converts that still practiced Judaism and Islam in secret. The system and ideology of the limpieza de sangre ostracized Christian converts from society, regardless of their actual degree of sincerity in their faith.
In Portugal, the legal distinction between New and Old Christian was only ended through a legal decree issued by the Marquis of Pombal in 1772, almost three centuries after the implementation of the racist discrimination. The limpieza de sangre doctrine was also very common in the colonization of the Americas, where it led to the racial separation of the various peoples in the colonies and created a very intricate list of nomenclature to describe one's precise race and, by consequence, one's place in society. This precise classification was described by Eduardo Galeano in the Open Veins of Latin America (1971). It included, among others terms, mestizo (50% Spaniard and 50% Native American), castizo (75% European and 25% Native American), Spaniard (87.5% European and 12.5% Native American), Mulatto (50% European and 50% African), Albarazado (43.75% Native American, 29.6875% European, and 26.5625% African), etc.
At the end of the Renaissance, the Valladolid debate (1550–1551) concerning the treatment of natives of the "New World" opposed the Dominican friar and Bishop of Chiapas Bartolomé de Las Casas to another Dominican philosopher Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda. The latter argued that "Indians" were natural slaves because they had no souls, and were therefore beneath humanity. Thus, reducing them to slavery or serfdom was in accordance with Catholic theology and natural law. To the contrary, Bartolomé de Las Casas argued that the Amerindians were free men in the natural order and deserved the same treatment as others, according to Catholic theology. It was one of the many controversies concerning racism, slavery and Eurocentrism that would arise in the following centuries.
Although antisemitism has a long European history, related to Christianism (anti-Judaism), racism itself is frequently described as a modern phenomenon. In the view of the French philosopher and historian Michel Foucault, the first formulation of racism emerged in the Early Modern period as the "discourse of race struggle", a historical and political discourse, which Foucault opposed to the philosophical and juridical discourse of sovereignty.[116] Foucault thus argued that the first appearance of racism as a social discourse (as opposed to simple xenophobia, which some might argue has existed in all places and times) may be found during the 1688 Glorious Revolution in Great Britain, in Edward Coke or John Lilburne's work.
However, this "discourse of race struggle", as interpreted by Foucault, must be distinguished from the 19th century biological racism, also known as "race science" or "scientific racism". Indeed, this early modern discourse has many points of difference with modern racism. First of all, in this "discourse of race struggle", "race" is not considered a biological notion — which would divide humanity into distinct biological groups — but as a historical notion. Moreover, this discourse is opposed to the sovereign's discourse: it is used by the bourgeoisie, the people and the aristocracy as a mean of struggle against the monarchy. This discourse, which first appeared in Great Britain, was then carried on in France by people such as Boulainvilliers, Nicolas Fréret, and then, during the 1789 French Revolution, Sieyès, and afterward Augustin Thierry and Cournot. Boulainvilliers, which created the matrix of such racist discourse in medieval France, conceived the "race" as something closer to the sense of "nation", that is, in his times, the "people".
He conceived France as divided between various nations — the unified nation-state is, of course, here an anachronism — which themselves formed different "races". Boulainvilliers opposed the absolute monarchy, who tried to bypass the aristocracy by establishing a direct relationship to the Third Estate. Thus, he created this theory of the French aristocrats as being the descendants of foreign invaders, whom he called the "Franks", while the Third Estate constituted according to him the autochthonous, vanquished Gallo-Romans, who were dominated by the Frankish aristocracy as a consequence of the right of conquest. Early modern racism was opposed to nationalism and the nation-state: the Comte de Montlosier, in exile during the French Revolution, who borrowed Boulainvilliers' discourse on the "Nordic race" as being the French aristocracy that invaded the plebeian "Gauls", thus showed his despise for the Third Estate calling it "this new people born of slaves... mixture of all races and of all times".
19th century
While 19th century racism became closely intertwined with nationalism,[117] leading to the ethnic nationalist discourse that identified the "race" to the "folk", leading to such movements as pan-Germanism, Zionism,[118] pan-Turkism, pan-Arabism, and pan-Slavism, medieval racism precisely divided the nation into various non-biological "races", which were thought as the consequences of historical conquests and social conflicts. Michel Foucault traced the genealogy of modern racism to this medieval "historical and political discourse of race struggle". According to him, it divided itself in the 19th century according to two rival lines: on one hand, it was incorporated by racists, biologists and eugenicists, who gave it the modern sense of "race" and, even more, transformed this popular discourse into a "state racism" (e.g. Nazism). On the other hand, Marxists also seized this discourse founded on the assumption of a political struggle that provided the real engine of history and continued to act underneath the apparent peace. Thus, Marxists transformed the essentialist notion of "race" into the historical notion of "class struggle", defined by socially structured position: capitalist or proletarian. In The Will to Knowledge (1976), Foucault analyzed another opponent of the "race struggle" discourse: Sigmund Freud's psychoanalysis, which opposed the concepts of "blood heredity", prevalent in the 19th century racist discourse.
Authors such as Hannah Arendt, in her 1951 book The Origins of Totalitarianism, have said that the racist ideology (popular racism) that developed at the end of the 19th century helped legitimize the imperialist conquests of foreign territories and atrocities that sometimes accompanied them (such as the Herero and Namaqua Genocide of 1904–1907 or the Armenian Genocide of 1915–1917). Rudyard Kipling's poem The White Man's Burden (1899) is one of the more famous illustrations of the belief in the inherent superiority of the European culture over the rest of the world, though also it is also thought to be a satirical appraisal of such imperialism. Racist ideology thus helped legitimize the conquest and incorporation of foreign territories into an empire, which were regarded as a humanitarian obligation partially as a result of these racist beliefs.
An illustration from Harper's Weekly shows an alleged similarity between "Irish Iberian" and "Negro" features in contrast to the "higher" "Anglo-Teutonic."
However, during the 19th century, West European colonial powers were involved in the suppression of the Arab slave trade in Africa,[119] as well as in suppression of the slave trade in West Africa.[120] Some Europeans during the time period objected to injustices that occurred in some colonies and lobbied on behalf of aboriginal peoples. Thus, when the Hottentot Venus was displayed in England in the beginning of the 19th century, the African Association publicly opposed itself to the exhibition. The same year that Kipling published his poem, Joseph Conrad published Heart of Darkness (1899), a clear criticism of the Congo Free State owned by Leopold II of Belgium.
Examples of racial theories used include the creation of the Hamitic ethno-linguistic group during the European exploration of Africa. It was then restricted by Karl Friedrich Lepsius (1810–1877) to non-Semitic Afro-Asiatic languages.[121]
The term Hamite was applied to different populations within Africa, mainly comprising Ethiopians, Eritreans, Somalis, Berbers, and the ancient Egyptians. Hamites were regarded as Caucasoid peoples who probably originated in either Arabia or Asia on the basis of their cultural, physical and linguistic similarities with the peoples of those areas.[122][123][124] Europeans considered Hamites to be more civilized than Black Africans, and more akin to themselves and Semitic peoples.[125] In the first two-thirds of the 20th century, the Hamitic race was, in fact, considered one of the branches of the Caucasian race, along with the Indo-Europeans, Semites, and the Mediterranean race.
However, the Hamitic peoples themselves were often deemed to have failed as rulers, which was usually ascribed to interbreeding with Negroes. In the mid-20th century, the German scholar Carl Meinhof (1857–1944) claimed that the Bantu race was formed by a merger of Hamitic and Negro races. The Hottentots (Nama or Khoi) were formed by the merger of Hamitic and Bushmen (San) races — both being termed nowadays as Khoisan peoples).
One in a series of posters attacking Radical Republicans on the issue of black suffrage, issued during the Pennsylvania gubernatorial election of 1866.
In the United States in the early 19th century, the American Colonization Society was established as the primary vehicle for proposals to return black Americans to greater freedom and equality in Africa.[126] The colonization effort resulted from a mixture of motives with its founder Henry Clay stating; "unconquerable prejudice resulting from their color, they never could amalgamate with the free whites of this country. It was desirable, therefore, as it respected them, and the residue of the population of the country, to drain them off".[127] Racism spread throughout the New World in the late 19th century and early 20th century. Whitecapping, which started in Indiana in the late 19th century, soon spread throughout all of North America, causing many African laborers to flee from the land they worked on. In the US during the 1860s, racist posters were used during election campaigns. In one of these racist posters (see above), a black man is depicted lounging idly in the foreground as one white man ploughs his field and another chops wood. Accompanying labels are: "In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat thy bread," and "The white man must work to keep his children and pay his taxes." The black man wonders, "Whar is de use for me to work as long as dey make dese appropriations." Above in a cloud is an image of the "Freedman's Bureau! Negro Estimate of Freedom!" The bureau is pictured as a large domed building resembling the U.S. Capitol and is inscribed "Freedom and No Work." Its columns and walls are labeled, "Candy," "Rum, Gin, Whiskey," "Sugar Plums," "Indolence," "White Women," "Apathy," "White Sugar," "Idleness," and so on.
On June 5, 1873, Sir Francis Galton, distinguished English explorer and cousin of Charles Darwin, wrote in a letter to The Times:
"My proposal is to make the encouragement of Chinese settlements of Africa a part of our national policy, in the belief that the Chinese immigrants would not only maintain their position, but that they would multiply and their descendants supplant the inferior Negro race" "I should expect that the African seaboard, now sparsely occupied by lazy, palavering savages, might in a few years be tenanted by industrious, order-loving Chinese, living either as a semidetached dependency of China, or else in perfect freedom under their own law." [128]
20th century
Further information: Holocaust, Racial policy of Nazi Germany, Racial segregation in the United States and Rwandan Genocide
Naked Soviet POWs in Mauthausen concentration camp. Between June 1941 and January 1942, the Nazis killed an estimated 2.8 million Red Army POWs, whom they viewed as "subhuman".[129]
Drinking fountain from mid-20th century with African-American drinking
During the World War II and the times of Nazi regime in Europe, all of the Jews, Gypsies, Blacks, mixed race people and Slavic people - mainly ethnic Poles, Serbs, Belarusians and Russians, along with other ethnic groups whose racial origin were non-European (with some small exceptions i.e. the "honorary Aryans", or the "Free Arabian Legion"), according to the Nazi ideology were classified as "subhumans" (Untermenschen) and were viewed as the opposite to the superior Aryan "master race" (Herrenvolk). The Nazi philosophy was rationalizing that the Germans, as Germanic peoples, were part of the "master race", also called the super-human (Übermenschlich) race, and had a biological right to territorial expansion and to displace, eliminate, and enslave inferior races.[130] Approximately 6 million Jews were killed by the Nazis during the Holocaust. In the longer term, the Nazis planned to exterminate some 30–45 million Slavs (mostly Poles and Serbs), however some of them were seen as good material for slaves.[131] Eventually over 2.5 million ethnic Poles, 0.7 million Gypsies, and 0.5 million ethnic Serbs died during the World War II, and were among the main non-Jewish victims of the Holocaust.[132]
Before Nazi Germany invaded Poland, Nazis prepared a special settlement plan named Generalplan Ost ("Master Plan East") which foresaw the eventual expulsion of more than 50 million non-Germanized Slavic peoples of Central Europe and Eastern Europe through forced migration and partial extermination of those Slavs by starvation. Also, according to the Nazi plans for Eastern Europe, some of the Balts were to be expelled beyond the Ural Mountains and into Siberia. In their place, Germans would settle in an extended "living space" (Lebensraum) of the 1000-Year Empire (Tausendjähriges Reich). Herbert Backe was one of the orchestrators of the Hunger Plan – the idea to starve tens of millions of Slavs in order to ensure steady food supplies for the German people and troops.[133]
Heinrich Himmler speech to about 100 SS Group Leaders in Posen, German-occupied Poland, 1943:
What happens to the Russians, what happens to the Czechs, is a matter of utter indifference to me... Whether the other peoples live in comfort or perish of hunger interests me only in so far as we need them as slaves for our culture; apart from that it does not interest me. Whether or not 10,000 Russian women collapse from exhaustion while digging a tank ditch interests me only in so far as the tank ditch is completed for Germany... We Germans, who are the only people in the world who have a decent attitude to animals, will also adopt a decent attitude to these human animals, but it is a crime against our own blood to worry about them and to bring them ideals... I shall speak to you here with all frankness of a very serious subject. We shall now discuss it absolutely openly among ourselves, nevertheless we shall never speak of it in public. I mean the evacuation of the Jews, the extermination of the Jewish race.[134]
Serious race riots in Durban between Indians and Zulus erupted in 1949.[135] Ne Win's rise to power in Burma in 1962 and his relentless persecution of "resident aliens" led to an exodus of some 300,000 Burmese Indians.[136] They migrated to escape racial discrimination and wholesale nationalisation of private enterprise a few years later in 1964.[137] The Zanzibar Revolution of January 12, 1964 put an end to the local Arab dynasty.[138] Thousands of Arabs and Indians in Zanzibar were massacred in riots, and thousands more were detained or fled the island.[139] On 4 August 1972, Idi Amin, President of Uganda, ethnically cleansed Uganda's Asians giving them 90 days to leave the country.[140]
Shortly after world war II the South African National Party took control over the governance in South Africa. Between 1948 and 1994, the Apartheid regime took place. This regime based their ideologies on the racial separation of whites and non- whites including the unequal rights of non-whites. Several protests and violence occurred during the Apartheid in South Africa, the most famous of these include the Sharpeville Massacre in 1960, the Soweto uprising in 1976, the Church Street bombing of 1983 and the Cape Town peace march of 1989.[141]
Contemporary
During the Congo Civil War (1998–2003), Pygmies were hunted down like game animals and eaten. Both sides of the war regarded them as "subhuman" and some say their flesh can confer magical powers. UN human rights activists reported in 2003 that rebels had carried out acts of cannibalism. Sinafasi Makelo, a representative of Mbuti pygmies, has asked the UN Security Council to recognise cannibalism as a crime against humanity and an act of genocide.[142] A report released by the United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination condemns Botswana's treatment of the 'Bushmen' as racist.[143] In 2008, the tribunal of the 15-nation Southern African Development Community (SADC) accused Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe of having a racist attitude towards white people.[144][145] In Liberia, the constitution restricts citizenship to only people of black African descent.[146]
On 12 September 2011, Julius Malema, youth leader of South Africa's ruling ANC, was found guilty of hate speech for singing 'Shoot the Boer' at a number of public events.[147]
The mass demonstrations and riots against African students in Nanjing, China, lasted from December 1988 to January 1989.[148] Bar owners in central Beijing had been forced by the police "not to serve black people or Mongolians" during the 2008 Summer Olympics, as the police associates these ethnic groups with illegal prostitution and drug trafficking.[149] Some neighborhood committees in Guangzhou bar Africans from living in residential complexes.[150] In November 2009, British newspaper The Guardian reported that Lou Jing, of mixed Chinese and African parentage, had emerged as the most famous talent show contestant in China and has become the subject of intense debate because of her skin colour.[151] Her attention in the media opened serious debates about racism in China and racial prejudice.[152]
In Asia and Latin America, light skin is seen as more attractive.[153] Thus, skin whitening cosmetic products are popular in East Asia[154] and India.[8] Some activists, most prominently at the UN conference at Durban, have asserted that the caste system in India is a form of racial discrimination.,[155][156] although many prominent[157] scholars debunk this viewpoint as "scientifically nonsense",[158] since there are no consistent racial differences between the different castes in India. These activists utilize genetic studies that claim to corroborate their view,[159] although other more detailed studies have challenged these assertions as overtly simplistic[160][161] Currently, there are approximately 165 million Dalits (formerly known as "untouchables") in India.[162]
Some 70,000 black African Mauritanians were expelled from Mauritania in the late 1980s.[163] In the Sudan, black African captives in the civil war were often enslaved, and female prisoners were often used sexually.[164] The Darfur conflict has been described by some as a racial matter.[165] In October 2006, Niger announced that it would deport the Arabs living in the Diffa region of eastern Niger to Chad.[166] This population numbered about 150,000.[167] While the Government collected Arabs in preparation for the deportation, two girls died, reportedly after fleeing Government forces, and three women suffered miscarriages.[168]
The Ethiopian Jewish community's integration into Israeli society has been complicated by racist attitudes on the part of some elements of Israeli society and the official establishment.[169][170] The Israeli media reported that residents of Pisgat Ze'ev, a large Jewish neighbourhood in Jerusalem, had formed a vigilante-style patrol to stop interracial dating between Arab men and local Jewish girls.[171]
The burnt out remains of Govinda's Indian Restaurant in Fiji, May 2000
The Jakarta riots of May 1998 targeted many Chinese Indonesians.[172] The anti-Chinese legislation was in the Indonesian constitution until 1998. Xenophobia against Chinese migrants is currently on the rise in Africa[173][174][175] and Oceania.[176][177] Anti-Chinese rioting, involving tens of thousands of people,[178] broke out in Papua New Guinea in May 2009.[179] The Fiji coup of 2000 has provoked a violent backlash against the Indo-Fijians.[180] Fiji citizens of Indian, European, mixed race or other island heritage have become second-class citizens.[181][182] Racial divisions also exist in Guyana,[183] Malaysia,[184] Trinidad and Tobago,[185] Madagascar,[186] or South Africa.[187]
One form of racism in the United States was enforced racial segregation which existed until the 1960s when it was outlawed. It has been argued that this separation of races continues to exist today de facto. The causes of segregation vary from lack of access to loans and resources to discrimination in realty.[188][189]
Inter-minority variants
Main article: Interminority racism
Prejudiced thinking among and between minority groups does occur, for example conflicts between African Americans and Korean Americans (notably in the Los Angeles riots of 1992), by blacks towards Jews (such as the riots in Crown Heights in 1991), between new immigrant groups (such as Latinos), or towards whites.[190][191][192][193]
African-Americans in Dallas boycotting a Korean owned Kwik Stop in a mostly black neighborhood, March 2012.[194]
There has been a long-running racial tension between African Americans and Mexican Americans.[195][196][197] There have been several significant riots in California prisons in which Mexican American inmates and African Americans have specifically targeted each other based on racial reasons.[197][198] There have been reports of racially motivated attacks against African Americans who have moved into neighborhoods occupied mostly by Mexican Americans, and vice versa.[199][200] In the late 1920s in California, there was animosity between the Filipinos and the Mexicans and between European Americans and Filipino Americans since they competed for the same jobs.[201] Recently, there has also been an increase in racial violence between African immigrants and Blacks who have already lived in the country for generations.[202]
Over 50 members of the Azusa 13 gang, associated with the Mexican Mafia, were indicted in 2011 for harassing and intimidating African Americans.[203]
In Britain, tensions between minority groups can be just as strong as those between minorities and the majority population.[204] In Birmingham, there have been long-term divisions between the Black and South Asian communities, which were illustrated in the Handsworth riots and in the smaller 2005 Birmingham riots.[205] In Dewsbury, a Yorkshire town with a relatively high Muslim population, there have been tensions and minor civil disturbances between Kurds and South Asians.[206][207]
In France, home to Europe's largest population of Muslims (about 6 million) as well as the continent's largest community of Jews (about 600,000), anti-Jewish violence, property destruction, and racist language has been increasing over the last several years. Jewish leaders perceive the Muslim population as intensifying antisemitism in France, mainly among Muslims of Arab or African heritage, but also this antisemitism is perceived as also growing among Caribbean islanders from former colonies.[208][209]
Research on influencing factors
Research has examined factors influencing tolerance, in particular ethnic tolerance, prejudice, and trust. Authoritarian personality has been associated with prejudice and intolerance. Education has an inverse association which is stronger in established democracies than in emerging. Different groups are viewed differently and including illegal groups in tolerance surveys may reduce tolerance levels in all countries except the United States. Increased contact with other groups increase tolerance. Increased perception of threat, including from the home land of an ethnic minority, reduces tolerance. Competition over jobs reduces tolerance and occupational segregation reduced ethnic conflicts and ethnic prejudice in studies in the United States and Yugoslavia. Tolerance is increased by democratic stability and a federal system. Increased ethnic heterogeneity increases tolerance up to a point but beyond this tolerance decreases. The negative effect of increased ethnic heterogeneity is stronger when looking at larger areas such as nations compared to smaller areas such as neighborhoods. This may be due to the contact effect being relatively more important at local levels while the threat effect becomes more important in larger areas.[210] One study, published by Carl Bell, revealed that "racist attitudes may be indicative of a narcissistic personality disorder or of a regression to primitive narcissistic functioning secondary to environmental forces."[211]
Anti-racism
Main article: Anti-racism
A peaceful anti-racism rally held outside Sydney Town Hall, December 2005.
Anti-racism includes beliefs, actions, movements, and policies adopted or developed to oppose racism. In general, it promotes an egalitarian society in which people are not discriminated against in race. Movements such as the African-American Civil Rights Movement and the Anti-Apartheid Movement were examples of anti-racist movements. Nonviolent resistance is sometimes an element of anti-racial movements, although this was not always the case. Hate crime laws, affirmative action, and bans on racist speech are also examples of government policy designed to suppress racism.
International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
UNESCO marks March 21 as the yearly International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, in memory of the events that occurred on March 21, 1960 in Sharpeville, South Africa, where police killed student demonstrators peacefully protesting against the apartheid regime.
See also
Allport's Scale
Discrimination based on skin color
Fascism
Index of racism-related articles
Labeling theory
Neo-Nazism
Racial literacy
Racial segregation
Racialization
Research Materials: Max Planck Society Archive
Reverse discrimination
Romantic racism
Scientific racism
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Social interpretations of race
Sociology of race and ethnic relations
Stereotype threat
Yellow Peril
References & notes
Racism Oxford Dictionaries
"Racism" in R. Schaefer. 2008 Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity and Society. SAGE. p. 1113
Newman, D. M. (2012). Sociology : exploring the architecture of everyday life (9th ed.). Los Angeles: SAGE. p. 405. ISBN 9781412987295. "racism: Belief that humans are subdivided into distinct groups that are different in their social behavior and innate capacities and that can be ranked as superior or inferior."
Reilly, Kevin; Kaufman, Stephen; Bodino, Angela (2003). Racism : a global reader. Armonk, N.Y: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 15–16. ISBN 978-0-7656-1060-7.
Eberhardt, Jennifer Lynn; Fiske, Susan T (1998). Confronting Racism: The Problem and the Response. SAGE. pp. 49–50. ISBN 978-0761903680.
http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/mcs/article/view/1075/1605 "Only White People can be Racist": What does Power have to with Prejudice? Pooja Sawrikar and Ilan Katz
http://www.andover.edu/About/Newsroom/TheMagazine/Documents/8-PedOfRacismSWJournal.pdf The Pedagogy of the Meaning of Racism: Reconciling a Discordant Discourse by Carlos Hoyt Jr
"In India, Skin-Whitening Creams Reflect Old Biases". NPR: National Public Radio. November 12, 2005
Reilly, Kevin; Kaufman, Stephen; Bodino, Angela (2003). Racism : a global reader. Armonk, N.Y: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-0-7656-1060-7.
"International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination". Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Retrieved December 23, 2011.
Reilly, Kevin; Kaufman, Stephen; Bodino, Angela (2003). Racism : a global reader. Armonk, N.Y: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 45–52. ISBN 978-0-7656-1060-7.
UN General Assembly, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948, 217 A (III), available at: [1] [accessed 18 July 2012]
Frideres, J.S. (May 2010). "Racism". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2010-07-23. "Racism was developed and popularized by scientists in the 19th century, as they were regarded as purveyors of truth."
"racism". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2009-03-16. Retrieved 2009-03-16.
"Framework decision on combating racism and xenophobia". Council Framework Decision 2008/913/JHA of 28 November 2008. European Union. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
"International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination". UN Treaty Series. United Nations. Archived from the original on 2011-08-26. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
Bamshad, Michael; Steve E. Olson (December 2003). "Does Race Exist?". Scientific American. "If races are defined as genetically discrete groups, no. But researchers can use some genetic information to group individuals into clusters with medical relevance."
"racialism, n.". OED Online. September 2013. Oxford University Press. (Accessed December 03, 2013).
"racism, n.". OED Online. September 2013. Oxford University Press. (Accessed December 03, 2013).
Miles, Robert (1989). Racism. Routledge. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-415-01809-8.
The term "racism" was used as the title of a 1930s book, and possibly coined, by sexologist and homosexual activist Magnus Hirschfeld.
"racism, n.". OED Online. Oxford University Press. March 2011. Retrieved 24 April 2011.
marissa mills (2007-08-31). "Minorities, Race, and Genomics". Ornl.gov. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
"racism". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. 2011. Retrieved 24 April 2011.
UN International Convention on the Elimination of All of Racial Discrimination, New York 7 March 1966
A. Metraux (1950) "United nations Economic and Security Council Statement by Experts on Problems of Race" in American Anthropologist 53(1): 142–145.
"Racist and Religious Crime – CPS Prosecution Policy". The CPS. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
Jon Dagsland Holgersen (23 July 2010) Rasebegrepet på vei ut av loven Aftenposten. Retrieved 10 December 2013 (Norwegian)
Rase: Et ubrukelig ord Aftenposten. Retrieved 10 December 2013 (Norwegian)
Ministry of Labour The Act on prohibition of discrimination based on ethnicity, religion, etc. Regjeringen.no. Retrieved 10 December 2013
Wellman, David T. (1993). Portraits of White Racism. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. pp. x.
Cazenave, Noël A.; Darlene Alvarez (1999). "Defending the White Race:White Male Faculty Opposition to a White Racism Course" Race and Society 2. pp. 25–50.
Oxford Dictionaries, The world's most trusted dictionaries http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/xenophobia?q=xenophobia, 2012
2012
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Further reading
Allen, Theodore. (1994). 'The Invention of the White Race: Volume 1 London, UK: Verso.
Allen, Theodore. (1997). The Invention of the White Race: Volume 2 London, UK: Verso.
Barkan, Elazar (1992), The Retreat of Scientific Racism : Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.
Barth, Boris: nbn:de:0159-2010092173 Racism , European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: November 16, 2011.
Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. 2003. Racism without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
Dain, Bruce (2002), A Hideous Monster of the Mind : American Race Theory in the Early Republic, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. (18th century US racial theory)
Diamond, Jared (1999), "Guns, Germs, and Steel", W.W. Norton, New York, NY.
Daniels, Jessie (1997), White Lies: Race, Class, Gender and Sexuality in White Supremacist Discourse, Routledge, New York, NY.
Daniels, Jessie (2009), Cyber Racism: White Supremacy Online and the New Attack on Civil Rights, Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, MD.
Ehrenreich, Eric (2007), The Nazi Ancestral Proof: Genealogy, Racial Science, and the Final Solution, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN.
Ewen & Ewen (2006), "Typecasting: On the Arts and Sciences of Human Inequality", Seven Stories Press, New York, NY.
Feagin, Joe R. (2006). Systemic Racism: A Theory of Oppression, Routledge: New York, NY.
Feagin, Joe R. (2009). Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparations, 2nd Edition.Routledge: New York, NY.
Eliav-Feldon, Miriam, Isaac, Benjamin & Ziegler, Joseph. 2009. The Origins of Racism in the West, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge
Gibson, Rich (2004) Against Racism and Nationalism
Graves, Joseph. (2004) The Race Myth NY: Dutton.
Ignatiev, Noel. 1995. How the Irish Became White NY: Routledge.
Isaac, Benjamin. 1995 The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity Princeton: Princeton University Press
Lentin, Alana. (2008) Racism: A Beginner's Guide Oxford: One World.
Lévi-Strauss, Claude (1952), Race and History, (UNESCO).
Albert Memmi (2000). Racism. University Of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-3165-0.
Rocchio, Vincent F. (2000), Reel Racism : Confronting Hollywood's Construction of Afro-American Culture, Westview Press.
Smedley, Audrey and Brian D. Smedley. (2005) "Race as Biology if Fiction, Racism as a Social Problem is Real." American Psychologist 60: 16–26.
Smedley, Audrey. 2007. Race in North America: Origins and Evolution of a World View. Boulder, CO: Westview.
Stoler, Ann Laura (1997), "Racial Histories and Their Regimes of Truth", Political Power and Social Theory 11 (1997), 183–206. (historiography of race and racism)
Taguieff, Pierre-André (1987), La Force du préjugé : Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles, Tel Gallimard, La Découverte.
Trepagnier, Barbara. 2006. Silent Racism: How Well-Meaning White People Perpetuate the Racial Divide. Paradigm Publishers.
Twine, France Winddance (1997), Racism in a Racial Democracy: The Maintenance of White Supremacy in Brazil, Rutgers University Press.
UNESCO, The Race Question, 1950
Tali Farkash, "Racists among us" in Y-Net (Yediot Aharonot), "Jewish Scene" section, April 20, 2007
Winant, Howard The New Politics of Race (2004)
Winant, Howard and Omi, Michael Racial Formation In The United States Routeledge (1986); Second Edition (1994).
Bettina Wohlgemuth (May 2007). Racism in the 21st century: how everybody can make a difference. ISBN 978-3-8364-1033-5.
Wright W. D. (1998) "Racism Matters", Westport, CT: Praeger.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Racism.
Being a Black Male in Cuba By Lucia Lopez, Havana Times May 5, 2009
Race, history and culture – Ethics – March 1996 -Extract of two articles by Claude Lévi-Strauss
Race, Racism and the Law – Information about race, racism and racial distinctions in the law.
RacismReview, – created and maintained by American sociologists Joe Feagin, PhD and Jessie Daniels, PhD, provides a research-based analysis of racism.
common_man
Farsi? Arabic? Pashto?
U.S. Army Sargeant Bowe Robert Bergdahl studied each of them while in the service on his own, not at D.L.I. in California. This shows tremendous initiative. What an asset to have on our side. He should be given a battlefield promotion with commission to the rank of colonel.
See how his savior on the left places his right hand on his chest over his heart in a motion of respect and how they wave goodbye thanking each other.
Happy Shavuot:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shavuot
Rest well, be healthy and prosperous.
common_man
Good night, dearest prince:
http://psychedelicfrontier.com/good-bye-sasha-chemist-alexander-shulgin-dies/
Everything is related to everthing else.
common_man
Let's work together for a better environment. Will I be able to get another two weeks' free on iHub until my stock shares increase? Thank you, HempLife.
common_man
The other Cannabis:
http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/the-other-cannabis-war-20140603
common_man
Yes, thank God, more than one but out of selfish pride, I have refused to count them. Listed were the top three. English was surpassed by Spanish in about 1986, I believe. So we anglophones aren't comparatively as numerous as we once were.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakers
I didn't know I had this gift from God until my parents forced me against my will to study Latin at The Lakeside School in 1959 in Seattle. Now it has become one of the loves of my life. My professor of Latin, Dr. Ralph Naiden, also drove a school bus, and so influenced by him, I drove a Los Angeles bus for my career.
After graduation in Yakima, WA, I went to Europe with two classmates and ended up in Kolkata, which was Calcutta of 1964, 50 years ago now.
After so much world travel, I got a vision for my fellow Americans to also go live in different cultures. Uruguay is beckoning us.
Perhaps we could cooperate trying to improve meanings of life that we enjoy. I suggest a private message with your private electronic contact information and I will respond with mine. I hope for voluntary mass temporary migration of our people to other cultures to learn and share our unique way of life.
And I will discuss in more detail the languages I follow, which is a promise. You are priceless.
Exempla gratia: Fructus autem Spiritus est: caritas, gaudium, pax, longanimitas, bonitas, benignitas, fides, modestia, continentia: aduersus huiusmodi non est lex. Hint: try http://www.translate.google.com
common_man
God bless her, Maya Angelou, and may we learn from her life:
http://titsandsass.com/the-erasure-of-maya-angelou/
common_man
Inspirational.
1. http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%A9%E6%98%82%E5%86%85%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E6%A2%85%E8%A5%BF
2. http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionel_Messi
3. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionel_Messi, and his new local tongue,
4. http://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionel_Andr%C3%A9s_Messi. Lionel Andrés Messi
Keep up the good work, Stephanie.
common_man
How much is the company worth the way it stands? How can one obtain shares at the bid price of zero?
Thanks in advance.
common_man
Romans said, "Quot homines, tot sententiae." Now homines are people, not only males. So it means something like there are as many opinions as there are people.
I enjoy reading your remarks, especially the obituary of Maya Angelou today.
common_man